IDnet responds to the Science Standards Writing Committee

February 8, 2001

Board of Directors
Kansas State Board of Education
120 SE 10th Avenue
Topeka, Kansas 66612-1182

Re: Our proposed revisions to the Sixth Draft of the Kansas Science Education Standards contained in our letter dated January 5, 2001 (Proposed Revisions”) and the January 30, 2001 Response (the “Response”) of the Science Standards Writing Committee (the “Committee”).

Ladies and Gentlemen,

Following the meeting on January 9, 2001, we submitted our Proposed Revisions to two groups of scientists, educators, lawyers and philosophers for comment. We also sought written endorsements from those who wished to state that they “generally agree with the substance of the Revisions.” To date we have received 104 written responses, including responses from the three authors. All but two of those responses reflect general agreement with the substance of the Revisions without further qualification. The two other responses favor the Revisions but were qualified in minor respects. We received no negative responses.

The 104 endorsements included endorsements issued by 58 persons holding one or more doctoral degrees, 14 holding terminal master’s degrees and 27 holding terminal bachelor’s degrees. Fifteen of the doctoral degrees were granted in the fields of biological sciences (biology, biochemistry, molecular biology, neurobiology, microbiology, plant pathology and zoology), eight in medicine, eight in law, six in chemistry, five in physics, 4 in philosophy, two in mathematics, two in education, including science education, two in psychology, one each in astronomy, oceanography, history of science and engineering, and two in other fields. The 14 masters and 27 bachelor terminal degrees were granted in a wide range of fields, including four in geology and earth sciences.

The endorsers are employed or retired from employment as college professors (34), research scientists (9), attorneys (6), physicians and health care professionals (8), K-12 school teachers (9), business or technical managers or specialists (24), members of school boards (3), graduate students (6), pastors and religious ministers (3) and other activities (2). Most of the responses come from throughout the United States. A few have come from Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany, indicating the global perspective of this issue.

The endorsement of the Proposed Revisions by this significant group of credentialed professionals suggests that those Revisions have merit.

In light of these endorsements, we are obviously disappointed with the response of the Committee. Its terse reply simply sweeps under the rug fundamental problems that inhere in the Sixth Draft. The Committee avoids a response to the substantive criticisms implicit in the Proposed Revisions by making a hollow claim that the Sixth Draft does not promote Naturalism.

Interestingly, this claim reflects an important agreement between us. We both agree that science standards should not be used to lead our children to a belief in Naturalism. Where we differ is whether the Sixth Draft actually has that effect. Is the Sixth Draft naturalistic or not? We and the endorsers find that the Sixth Draft promotes Naturalism. The Committee contends that it does not – at least that it does not promote a “philosophy of naturalism.”

With all due respect to the Committee, the Sixth Draft clearly promotes a belief in Naturalism. If these science standards are followed by teachers as directed, those teachers will lead our children toward a belief that design does not play a role in the origin of the universe, of life and the diversity of life. That is Naturalism. It makes no difference whether the Committee or the Board believes that it is injecting philosophy into the standards. If these standards are used as proposed they will have the effect of preaching naturalism to our children. They will improperly lead our Children to a belief that they are not the products of design and that they are the products of only natural causes.

The primary mechanism to achieve this end is the Sixth Draft’s proposed use of a definition of science that permits only “natural explanations of the world around us.” Natural explanations comprehend only “natural causes.” This rules out design as a cause even though the inference of design is logically based on data that is observed in nature, consistent with scientific methods used in other scientific disciplines that focus on design detection. If there was ever any doubt about the intent of this natural limit to censor design inferences and explanations, it was removed in the dialogue between Dr. Abrams and the Co-Chairmen of the Committee on January 9, 2001. In that discussion the Committee leaders advised the Board that the new definition of science is intended to narrow the “domain of science” such that teachers are not permitted under the Sixth Draft to bring up design as a possible cause of natural objects. If a child raises the question, then the Sixth Draft requires that the child be told that this matter is outside the “domain of science” and to take the question elsewhere.

This has the effect of promoting naturalism. It makes no difference whether you call it methodological naturalism or philosophical naturalism, it has the same effect. Our children will be led down a path that takes them to only one conclusion about their origins – a naturalistic one. As the Supreme Court has said, government must be concerned not only with the “form” of its actions, but the “effect” of them. In the arena of origins science the effect must be neutral. The Sixth Draft does not pass this test.

The Committee asserts, as if it were fact, that “science” requires that only natural explanations be permitted. This is not true. The Committee should take note that the Latin root of the word “science” means “knowledge.” The Committee’s definition is far too limited and prescriptive and is actually at odds with the current definition that is properly driven by logic. The Committee definition also conflicts with the common definition of science provided by Webster’s New Third International Dictionary. That highly respected source defines science as a body of knowledge “formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths.” Nowhere does it suggest that explanations must be limited to only natural ones. Finally, the limitation to only “natural explanations” conflicts with the view of the Supreme Court that science must focus “solely on principles and methodology, not on the conclusions that they generate.” [ Daubert v. Merrill Dow Corporation, Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993) and Kumho Tire Co., Ltd., Et al. V. Carmichael Et al. 119 S.Ct. 1167 (1999)].

For the many logical, scientific, legal and cultural reasons outlined in our January 5 letter, the Committee’s definition is one which is inconsistent with science that seeks to provide honest answers to fundamental questions regarding our origin. The naturalistic definition proposed by the Committee and the National Science organizations which hold copyright permission over much of the Sixth Draft, is simply an inherently misleading mechanism that will have the effect of guiding our children to a belief in Naturalism.

Our Proposed Revisions also seek to cure misinformation that will result from the proposed naturalistic teachings. Regardless of the wisdom of teaching only one of the two possible explanations for origins, this methodology is inherently misleading if the strategy is not explained to students in great detail. Nowhere does the Sixth Draft seek to explain its naturalistic assumption. This undisclosed assumption, along with the censorship of evidence which challenges the naturalistic explanation, will lead teachers to seriously misrepresent the strength of the evidence that supports the naturalistic explanation. Our revisions detail the numerous instances of this misinformation. The Committee response completely fails to address these problems and their expected consequences.

We recognize that your patience concerning science standards may be quite thin by now. However, this issue is important. The Proposed Revisions squarely address this most difficult problem of how to teach our children about the origin of the universe, of life and its diversity. They provide a logical, scientific, legal and culturally satisfying solution. It is one that has been endorsed by a significant number of qualified scientists, educators, philosophers and lawyers. We urge you to follow their lead and adopt the Proposed Revisions.

Thank you.

Very truly yours,

s/John H. Calvert            s/William S. Harris          s/Jody F. Sjogren
John H. Calvert, J.D.      William S. Harris, PhD    Jody F. Sjogren, M.S., CMI
Managing Director          Managing Director           Managing Director

cc: The Endorser

Response of the Writing Committee to the Cover Letter and Document Prepared by the Intelligent Design Network

[Part of a Memo Dated January 30, 2001 to The KSBE]

The Intelligent Design Network prepared a lengthy response to the writing committee’s sixth draft of its science standards. Representatives of the ID Network submitted this document and a cover letter to the Board at its January, 2001 meeting. The Board directed the writing committee to consider the ID Network’s document in preparing its current draft (6.1) of science standards.

The writing committee set the context for its response by quoting from the Intelligent Design Network’s cover letter of January 5, 2001 to the Kansas State Board of Education:

“Our proposal is focused on one issue. It seeks only to stop the teaching/preaching of naturalism to our children in the area of origins science – science that deals with the origin of the universe, of life and its diversity. As you know, Naturalism is a doctrine or belief that states that all phenomena result only from natural causes – chance and necessity – and that design inferences are invalid. It is not a proven theory. It is a philosophy.”

Writing Committee’s Response: Naturalism, as defined by the ID network, is a philosophy not a science. In contrast to naturalistic philosophy, the proposed draft six standards are about science. Written by Kansas’ scientists, educators, and citizens, these standards do not foster teaching naturalistic philosophy. In the nature of science section, draft six describes the limits of science: “Science is the human activity of seeking natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experimentation, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism.” This means that by its methods, science limits its investigations to the natural world. It does not propose or even suggest that ALL phenomena result from only natural causes. Draft six does not state, “Nature is all that is or was, or ever will be.”

Consistent with the above response, science itself is limited to natural explanations. To open it on par with non-natural explanations would erroneously elevate the scope and importance of science. To adopt a science definition not anchored in the natural world would make these standards the first to invite non-science into the science classroom.

January 5, 2001

Board of Directors
Kansas State Board of Education
120 SE 10th Avenue
Topeka, Kansas 66612-1182

Re: Science Education Standards

Ladies and Gentlemen:  This letter contains suggested revisions to the “Kansas Science Education Standards, Sixth Draft of Science Writing Team, December 2000 (Tentative — Not “Official”).” This is the draft that was circulated to members of the Kansas State Board of Education in December, 2000, prior to the December 12, 2000 meeting. We refer to that document in this letter as the “Sixth Draft.”

We understand that the Board will be asked to replace the existing Standards that were adopted in December 1999 with the Sixth Draft. Although we have no comment on the bulk of the Sixth Draft, we believe it imperative that our suggested revisions be included in any final Standards that the Board does adopt.Our proposal is focused on one issue. It seeks only to stop the teaching/preaching of Naturalism to our children in the area of origins science – science that deals with the origin of the universe, of life and its diversity. As you know, Naturalism is a doctrine or belief that states that all phenomena result only from natural causes – chance and necessity – and that design inferences are invalid. It is not a proven theory. It is a philosophy.

The Sixth Draft proposes to use Naturalism to censor any discussion or teaching which conflicts with its essential tenet that no natural system is designed. We believe this is fundamentally wrong. The use of Naturalism to limit inquiry and explanation violates rules of logic. It conflicts with the scientific method. It will lead our schools into violations of the neutrality required by the establishment clause of our Constitution. It will have profound negative affects on our culture and our ethical and moral values. Due to its censoring mechanism – Naturalism will lead our science teachers to omit to discuss information that is material to the question at hand. This results in misinformation. Our proposal seeks to cure these problems that inhere in the Sixth Draft.This letter consists of an “INTRODUCTION TO THE SUGGESTED REVISIONS” and a second part consisting of the SUGGESTED REVISIONS AND COMMENTARY. The suggested revisions include portions of the text around each revision so that the reader can generally understand the context within which the suggestion is being made. We have also included a “comment” section after each set of revisions so that you can understand the reasons for the suggested change. Finally, we have posted a copy of this letter on our web site at: http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org.

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INTRODUCTION TO THE SUGGESTED REVISIONS

The fundamental issue raised by the Sixth Draft is whether we should adopt Science Standards that will have the effect of causing Kansas teachers to promote a philosophy of Naturalism in teaching our children about origins – the origin of the universe, the origin of life and the origin of the diversity of life. Naturalism is “the doctrine that cause-and-effect laws (as of physics and chemistry) are adequate to account for all phenomena and that teleological [design] conceptions of nature are invalid” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary).

We believe Kansas Science Standards should not promote Naturalism for the following reasons:

1. Naturalism Conflicts with Principles of Logic. There are essentially only two hypotheses regarding origins. The naturalistic hypothesis is that life and its diversity results only from chance and necessity while the design hypothesis suggests that it results from a combination of design, chance and necessity. If you philosophically limit inquiry and explanation to only the naturalistic hypothesis, then you violate the laws of logic which seek to produce reliable and trustworthy explanations. Applying naturalism to origins science is like an investigator assuming that every house fire is the result of accidental or natural causes and that arson (a fire started on purpose, by design) is not a permitted explanation. If the investigator rules out design before examining the evidence he will always conclude that fires result only from accidental or natural causes. Like an arson investigation, origins sciences, including evolutionary biology, are historical sciences. They seek to use present evidence to explain a past (unobservable) event. Rigorous logic and objectivity are particularly necessary in the writing of any historical account. An historical account that is driven by bias or a single philosophical, cultural, religious or other viewpoint, can never be credible, reliable or trustworthy. This issue is discussed in more detail in the IDnet letter to Ms. Rupe and Ms. Gamble that was circulated to each of you.

2. Naturalism Conflicts with the Scientific Method. Although Naturalism may work well in strictly empirical sciences,it does not work in origins sciences. In this area of science it clearly conflicts with the scientific method. The scientific method requires that a hypothesis be tested against all competing hypotheses and their related evidence. With regard to origins science, Naturalism censors the competing design hypothesis and declares it to be invalid as a matter of assumption and not as a matter of evidence.The need to test a hypothesis against a competing hypothesis is recognized by the Sixth Draft where it is stated that:”Inquiry is central to science learning. These standards call for more than “science as a process,” in which students learn discrete skills such as observing, inferring, and experimenting. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. (emphasis added) However, after enunciating the requirement that alternative explanations be considered, the Sixth Draft uses naturalism to censor the design hypothesis rather than to encourage its objective consideration. One of the better examples is Benchmark 3 of Standard 5 for grades 1-4:“

Benchmark 3: All students will distinguish between natural and human-made objects. Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life. (emphasis added)In this Benchmark, it is assumed, without discussion, that natural systems are not designed. What is the basis for the assumption that no design is involved in the creation of a falcon when we know that highly sophisticated design and engineering is involved in the human design and construction of a much less sophisticated F-16 Fighting Falcon jet fighter? The basis is not found in any objective examination of the evidence. The basis is found in the definition of science in the Sixth Draft that only permits “natural explanations.”Thus, instead of asking children whether birds or flowers are designed, the draft seeks to lead our children into the naturalistic belief that they are not the products of design. If we were to teach children origins science according to the scientific method we would ask them to consider and confront the evidence that supports the competing design hypothesis rather than leading them away from it. It should be noted that this slight of hand occurs by violating another of the scientific principles noted above that require students to “identify their assumptions.”  Not only does the Sixth Draft fail to identify its naturalistic bias as an assumption (except with one word in the definition of science) it leads students into thinking that there are no assumptions other than the objectivity enunciated by the quoted paragraph. This is misinformation that is exceedingly deceptive. The science community responsible for the Sixth Draft should be aware that Naturalism is driving the teaching. It violates its public trust when it omits to tell students about that assumption and the effect of that assumption on the credibility of the explanations given. This is why Michael Ruse, a Darwinist philosopher of science, recently declared that evolution has become a religion.

If origins science would stick to the scientific method and allow this historical science to be written objectively and without philosophical and religious bias, then it would qualify for our respect and attention. Otherwise, it really does become nothing more than a myth and a religion.3. Teaching Naturalism conflicts with the Establishment clause of our Constitution by mandating bias rather than neutrality with respect to a fundamental religious issue.The First Amendment to the Constitution provides that the federal government will impose no law or regulation “respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The court has also held that by virtue of the 14th Amendment, the First Amendment also applies to any state or local government or subdivision thereof. This has been construed by the Supreme Court to mean that the “principal or primary effect” of a state action must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion [Board of Education v. Allen, 392 U.S. 236, 243, 88 S.Ct. 1923, 1926 (1968)]. Similarly, the Supreme Court has held that a state institution that encourages open discourse on a subject may not censor single or multiple viewpoints without violating the Free Speech clause of the constitution [Rosenberger v. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia, 515 U.S. 819, 831-2, 115 S.Ct. 2510,2518 (1995)].The neutrality required by the Constitution is articulated by Justice O’Connor in her concurring opinion in the Rosenberg v. Rector, et. al, at page 846 (2525 S.Ct.) as follows:”‘We have time and again held that the government generally may not treat people differently based on the God or gods they worship, or do not worship.’ [Citations omitted]. This insistence on government neutrality toward religion explains why we have held that schools may not discriminate against religious groups by denying them equal access to facilities that the schools make available to all. [citations omitted]. Withholding access would leave an impermissible perception that religious activities are disfavored: ‘[The message is one of neutrality rather than endorsement; if a State refused to let religious groups use facilities open to others, then it would demonstrate not neutrality but hostility toward religion.‘ [citations omitted]. ‘The Religion Clauses prohibit the government from favoring religion, but they provide no warrant for discriminating against religion.'[citations omitted]. Neutrality, in both form and effect, is one hallmark of the Establishment Clause.” (emphasis added)Although neither design nor Neo-Darwinism in and of themselves constitute a religion, design and the naturalistic underpinning of Neo-Darwinism give rise to serious religious implications. Although design does not require theism, all theistic religions that are based on a deity that intervenes in the material world mandate a design-based view of origins. By excluding design as a possible cause of life and its diversify, Naturalism is unavoidably hostile to theistic beliefs.Accordingly, if a public school system censors evidence of design that exists in nature due to the naturalistic philosophy of science it will have the “effect” of inhibiting or antagonizing the religious beliefs of students who are taught to believe that a designer is responsible for life and its diversity. Under these circumstances, the parent of such a child would have cause to complain that the School was violating the principle of government neutrality. The parents and child would claim denigration of their religious beliefs by State-sponsored promotion of a philosophy (Naturalism) which suppresses evidence consistent with and supportive of their beliefs.By the same token, if a school were to censor naturalistic views of origins, the school system would be denigrating atheistic beliefs while promoting theistic beliefs. In that case, atheistic parents would have cause to complain.Accordingly, the only way a public school system can achieve the neutrality required by the Supreme Court is to not censor reliable scientific evidence which supports either causal explanation. In this way the evidence of both theories of origins will be allowed to compete freely and to be open to no-holds-barred testing in the market place of ideas.4. Naturalism is Converting Darwinian evolution into a Religion that is Profoundly affecting Our Moral and Ethical Values.Darwinism has spawned a growing secular religion that is having an enormous impact on our culture. Recently, the highly regarded ex Christian, Darwinist and philosopher Michael Ruse published a paper complaining that “evolution” has become a religion. In “How Evolution Became a Religion,” http://www.nationalpost.com, (May 13, 2000), Mr. Ruse tells about his complaint:” Evolution is promoted by its practitioners as more than mere science. Evolution is promulgated as an ideology, a secular religion — a full-fledged alternative to Christianity, with meaning and morality. I am an ardent evolutionist and an ex Christian, but I must admit that in this one complaint — and Mr. Gish is but one of many to make it — the literalists are absolutely right. Evolution is a religion. This was true of evolution in the beginning, and it is true of evolution still today.” (emphasis added) But what is it that makes Darwinian evolution a religion? What is the mechanism that causes that to happen? It is Naturalism that enables Darwinian evolution to become a religion. Its censorship of the competing hypothesis makes it possible for the stage to be occupied by only one point of view. Mr. Ruse’s plea that scientists stop making evolution into a religion will be answered only when they allow the theory to compete fairly in the market place of ideas with the competing design hypothesis. Until that happens it will become more of a religion than it is now.

The subtle evangelism practiced by Naturalists is explained by Nancy Pearcey in a speech that was delivered at a Congressional Briefing on Intelligent Design on Capitol Hill on May 10, 2000⁽¹⁾.”One of the most vexing questions since Darwin’s own day is what his theory means for religion. Not long ago, I picked up a nature book for my little five-year-old about the Bernstein Bears, the highly popular picture-book characters. In this book, the Bear family invites us on a nature walk, and as you read you suddenly come across a two-page spread with a startling slogan sprawled across both pages with capital letters: Nature is “all that IS, or WAS, or EVER WILL BE.”  “Have we heard that somewhere before? The words echo the well-known line from Carl Sagan’s PBS show “Cosmos”: “The cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be.” Sagan was echoing the classic Christian liturgy (“as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever will be”), and what he was offering was nothing less than a religion of naturalism–where nature takes the place of God as the ultimate and eternal reality. What Sagan did for adults, the Bernstein Bears are doing for young kids. Once Darwinian evolution becomes entrenched via Naturalism it then offers to provide a basis not only for our scientific considerations but also our moral and ethical values. This offer was recently made by Ernst Mayr, one of the “Towering figures in the history of evolutionary biology” in his recent article on the “Influence of Darwin on Modern Thought,” at page 82 and 83 of the July 2000 issue of Scientific American:”…..Darwin provided a scientific foundation for ethics.

*****“To Borrow Darwin’s phrase, there is grandeur in this view of life. New modes of thinking have been, and are being, evolved. Almost every component in modern man’s belief system is somehow affected by Darwinian principles.”However, many believe that this “grandeur” is more likely to result in the kind of decadence that is described by Nancy Pearcey: “Ever since Darwin’s day, people have been concerned that [Darwin’s] theory undercuts morality in the traditional sense–and they are right. If you listen to radio, you might have heard a song that’s climbing rapidly up the charts these days by a group called The Bloodhound Gang. The song has a refrain punched out over and over: “You and me baby ain’t nothin’ but mammals; So let’s do it like they do on the Discovery Channel.” A video for the song features band members dressed as monkeys simulating sexual relations with one another.”The naturalistic conversion of Darwinism into religion is fostered by the Sixth Draft. It refers to humans as nothing more than “complex, SOFT MACHINES…” (Emphasis added. Grade 9-12, Standard 3, Benchmark 7, Para 10.5). It equates human behavior to that of animals and implies that both are merely the products of natural selection: “Benchmark 6: Students will understand the behavior of animals.                ******

“3. Like other aspects of an organism’s biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.Examples: Behaviors are often adaptive when viewed in terms of survival and reproductive success. Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology, and anthropology. (emphasis added) [Benchmark 6 of the Life Sciences Standard for grades 9-12] It is misleading to flatly state that “behaviors have evolved through natural selection,” without first stating that this conclusion is based on a philosophy of naturalism and that thedirect evidence for the assertion is completely speculative and conjectural. It is even more misleading, without stating that critical assumption, to then imply a similar origin for human behavior. However, the more dangerous effect of this misleading teaching is that it will allow our children to think of themselves as nothing more than animals and soft machines whose ethics and morals can be based on whatever they decide or whatever the scientific elite tells us about nature, which is “all that IS, or WAS, or EVER WILL BE.”SUGGESTED REVISIONS AND COMMENTARYThe specific revisions which we suggest are shown below. The changes suggested are shown within their context. Proposed additions are underlined in bold face type. Proposed deletions are shown with a single line strikeout: strikeout. A set of asterisks (*****) indicate the omission of text which is not subject to any proposed change.Following each “Revision” is a “COMMENT” section that explains the reasons for each of the suggested revisions.

Revision 1. INTRODUCTION – Nature of Science – Change in the Definition of Science.       

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“INTRODUCTION
*****
        “Nature of Science”Science is the human activity of seeking logical natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experiment, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are built on observations, hypotheses, theories.
*******
“Scientific explanations are consistent with experimental and/or observational data and testable by scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation. Generally, scientific explanation must meet criteria that govern the repeatability of observations and experiments. The effect of these criteria is to insure that scientific explanations about the world are open to criticism and that they will be modified or abandoned in favor of new explanations if empirical evidence so warrants. However certain sciences that are historical in nature may not be subject to the experimentation, observability and testability that may be conducted in sciences where phenomena may be tested in the present as with pure physics and chemistry. This is the case with evolutionary biology and other historical sciences that attempt to explain past or historical events such as the cause of the universe and of life and its diversity where past events can not be reconstructed and tested in real time. “Laws and experiments are inappropriate techniques for the explication of such events and processes. Instead one constructs a historical narrative, consisting of a tentative reconstruction of the particular scenario that led to the events one is trying to explain.” (Ernst Mayr, “Darwin’s Influence on Modern Thought” (Scientific American, July 2000, p 80)”” Because All scientific explanations depend on observational and experimental confirmation, all scientific knowledge is in principle, are subject to change as new evidence becomes available. “” The core theories of science have been subjected to a wide variety of confirmations and have a high degree of reliability within the limits to which they have been tested. In areas where data or understanding are incomplete, new data may lead to changes in current theories or resolve current conflicts. In situations where information is still fragmentary, it is normal for scientific ideas to be incomplete, but this is also where the opportunity for making advances may be greatest. Science has flourished in different regions during different time periods, and in history diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technological inventions. Changes in scientific knowledge usually occur as gradual modifications, but the scientific enterprise also experiences periods of rapid advancement. The daily work of science and technology results in incremental advances in our understanding of the world about us.”                        *******COMMENT To Revision 1The definition of science used in the current standards is:”Science is the human activity of seeking logical explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experimentation, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are built on observations, hypotheses, and theories. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, inferences, and tested hypotheses.”Although we believe a somewhat different definition of science might be more appropriate,⁽²⁾ we oppose the proposed change that would substitute the word “natural” for “logical.”This is obviously the most important issue in the entire document. The proposed change mandates the teaching of Naturalism to our school children. We oppose that for all the reasons mentioned above.The definition in the Sixth Draft that imposes a naturalistic limitation on science inquiry is also clearly at odds with the commonly accepted meaning of the word “science.” The Webster’s definition does not contain the naturalistic limitation on explanation, but rather equates science with a search for the truth:            “Science …..“3. a: accumulated and accepted knowledge that has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws : knowledge classified and made available in work, life , or the search for the truth: comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge; esp. knowledge obtained and tested through the scientific method ….

b: such knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena: natural science.”[Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, 1993]A naturalistic limitation on inquiry will impede rather than aid “the discovery of general truths” and a “search for the truth.”A word search on the Sixth Draft for the word “truth.” results in the following response:

” ‘TRUTH’ NOT FOUND.”The other changes in this section reflect the fact that origins sciences are essentially historical and not subject to the kind of experimentation and testing that non-historical sciences must adhere to.Revision 2. INTRODUCTION — Teachings About OriginsAdd the following new subsection to the Introduction:
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“INTRODUCTION
*******
“Teachings About Origins

“Any teaching about origins has religious and philosophical implications. This is particularly true with respect to teachings about the cause of life and its diversity. A naturalistic teaching that life and its diversity results only from mechanisms of chance and necessity, such as Darwinian evolution guided by random mutation and natural selection, implies that no intelligent agent or god has intervened in the process. Accordingly, the implications of that teaching are consistent with atheism and inconsistent with theistic religions founded on the belief that a God does intervene in the material world. A teaching that life and its diversity may result from design implies the intervention of an intelligent agent. Accordingly, the implications of that teaching are consistent with theism.

“Good science education about origins issues should not censor the teaching of evidence of any of the possible causes of life and its diversity so long as the evidence is reliable, is relevant to and logically supportive of the issue and is not being presented to advocate any particular religious or philosophical belief. In particular, scientific teachings about the cause of life and its diversity should not be based on a philosophy of naturalism nor should they be based on any religious belief or teaching about creation. Naturalism is “the doctrine that cause-and-effect laws (as of physics and chemistry) are adequate to account for all phenomena and that teleological [design] conceptions of nature are invalid” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary).

“If a teacher is censored from discussing evidence of design so that the teacher may only teach a theory based on mechanisms of chance and necessity, then the school may be causing the state to promote atheistic beliefs in a way that has the effect of denigrating theistic beliefs. If a teacher is censored from discussing evidence of Darwinian evolution based on natural selection and random mutation so that the teacher may only teach a theory based on design, then the school may be causing the state to promote theistic beliefs in a way that has the effect of denigrating atheistic beliefs and religions which are not theistic.

“Teachers should also not be censored from teaching evidence that tends to criticize any theory of origins for the same reasons. Censorship of evidence critical of any theory of origins will tend to promote the protected theory and its atheistic or theistic implications. Censorship of the evidence will also undercut the credibility of the protected theory and will be inconsistent with the fundamental principle of science that all theories should be held open to testing and criticism.

“Any conclusions expressed by a teacher regarding the weight of the evidence supporting any particular theory should be formed objectively and tentatively, based on the strength of the evidence and not on any religious or philosophical view or belief. The tentativeness of any such conclusion is important since ultimate answers to the issue of the origin of life are currently unknowable based on available technology.

“Teachers should also be encouraged to explain to science students an objective history of the philosophy of science and how that philosophy changed with the advent of Darwinism to a philosophy of naturalism. Science teachers should carefully explain that naturalism is merely a belief or philosophy and that explanations of origins may be affected by this belief or philosophy.“            *******COMMENT To Revision 2This section has been added because the Sixth Draft makes no distinction between teachings about origins and teachings about other aspects of scientific knowledge. In addition to the fact that origins science is essentially a historical science that sets it apart from other sciences, it is also a science that necessarily causes public schools to encounter religious subject matter. This raises a legal issue. As indicated above, the Supreme Court has held that a state must deal with religious issues neutrally. Such neutrality can not be achieved when the science of origins is taught with a preconceived and philosophic bias against any design inference.The proposed addition to the standards illustrates the problem and offers a solution that is consistent with logic, good science and our Constitution.Revision 3. INTRODUCTION – Teaching With Tolerance and Respect********
“INTRODUCTION
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“Teaching With Tolerance and Respect

“Science studies natural phenomena by formulating explanations that can be tested against the natural world. Some scientific concepts and theories (e.g. blood transfusion, human sexuality, nervous system role in consciousness, cosmological and biological evolution, etc.) may conflict with the teachings of a student’s religious community or their cultural beliefs. Although a science teacher has the responsibility to improve students understanding of scientific processes, concepts, and theories, the science teacher should not promote evidence, theories or concepts to advance a philosophic or religious belief. In addition, However, science should not be taught dogmatically. Compelling student belief is inconsistent with and in conflict with the goal of education.”

” A teacher is an important role model for demonstrating respect. sensitivity, and civility. Teachers should not ridicule, belittle or embarrass a student for expressing an alternative view or belief. In doing this, teachers display and demand tolerance and respect for the diverse ideas, skills, and experiences of all students. If a student should raise a question in a natural science class that the teacher determines to be outside the domain of science, the teacher should treat the question with respect. The teacher should explain why the question is outside the domain of natural science and encourage the student to discuss the question further with his or her family and other appropriate source. However, teachers shall not classify a question as outside the domain of science simply because it conflicts with a naturalistic view of the cause of life and its diversity.“*******COMMENT To Revision 3In prior versions of the Sixth Draft, the naturalistic guidance to teachers who receive questions that are not within the “domain of science” was to refer the student to the student’s family or clergy. The problem is that neither have the qualifications necessary to address the quality of the evidence of design that exists in the universe and in living systems. Apparently recognizing the inability of members of the clergy to address these issues, the Sixth Draft simply proposes to refer these questions to another “appropriate source,” without identifying the “source.” Well, what is the source for knowledge about the evidence of design that exists in nature? The sources are scientists – geologists, biochemists, biologists, mathematicians, astronomers, chemists, physicists, information theorists and computer scientists, and so forth. If indeed the other appropriate sources are scientists, then why should this evidence be classified as outside the “domain of science.” This issue merely highlights the inappropriateness of using Naturalism to censor scientific inquiry and analysis by limiting the “domain of science.”Revision 4. INTRODUCTION – Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards******
“INTRODUCTION
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“Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards
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“Constancy, Change, and Measurement: Although most things are in the process of becoming different-changing-some properties of objects and processes are characterized by constancy (e.g., speed of light, charge of an electron, total mass plus energy in the universe). Changes might occur, for example, in properties of materials, position of objects, motion, and form and function of systems. Interactions within and among systems result in change. Changes vary in rate, scale, and pattern, including trends and cycles. Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions. For example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible. Changes in systems can be quantified, and evidence for interactions and subsequent change and the formulation of scientific explanations are often clarified through quantitative distinctions-measurement. All measurements are approximations, and the accuracy and precision of measurement depend on equipment, technology, and technique used during observations. Mathematics is essential for accurately measuring change. Different systems of measurement are used for different purposes. Scientists usually use the metric system. An important part of measurement is knowing when to use which system. For example a meteorologist might use degrees Fahrenheit when reporting the weather to the public, but in writing scientific reports, the meteorologist would use degrees Celsius. We do not know why many changes or patterns of events have occurred. For example, we do not have a complete scientific explanation for the cause of: the origin of the universe and its laws, the origin of life and its diversity, or the causative agent of the mind and its capacities to perceive, think, reason and decide. Although theories are postulated about these events, all of the theories are controversial.

“Patterns of Cumulative Change: Accumulated changes through time, some gradual and some sporadic, may account for some of the present form and function of objects, organisms, and natural systems. Present phenomena are often best understood in the light of the historical processes that produced them. The general idea is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. An example of cumulative change is the biological theory of evolution, which explains the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors. Additional examples are continental drift, which is part of plate tectonic theory, fossilization, and erosion. Patterns of cumulative change also help to describe the current structure of the universe.

“Form and Function: Form and function are complementary aspects of objects, organisms, and systems. The form or shape of an object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function.In systems that have been designed by humans or animals the form can generally be explained in relation to the purpose for which the objects or systems were designed. In this respect “form follows function.” Function frequently relies on form. Understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Form and function can aid in the explanation of explaineach other.”*****COMMENT To Revision 4Although it is clear that things change over time and that those changes may influence subsequent events, scientists still are very much in the dark as to the mechanisms or means that direct change. We simply do not know what causes some changes. Rather than imply that we have all the answers, truth would be better served by simply acknowledging our ignorance. This is reflected in the first suggested revision to this section.Consistent with this ignorance, we should not teach a naturalistic “story” that cumulative change explains the appearance and diversity of life when great gaps in our knowledge exist. The second set of revisions in this section deal with the elevation of cumulative change as the solution to our ignorance. We know that patterns of events result from a combination of one of three causes – design, chance or necessity. However, we do not know, as the naturalistic paradigm mandates, that design is not involved and that change results only from chance and necessity and the cumulative changes that they produce.It is inappropriate to elevate Darwinian evolution and other naturalistic theories of change to one of five “unifying concepts.” A unifying concept should be one that has gained acceptance without protection from testing by the competing hypothesis and that is not subject to the degree of criticism that has been advanced against natural selection as a mechanism that can build irreducibly complex systems. But more importantly, a unifying concept should not be driven by a philosophy that censors consideration of highly relevant evidence. A unifying concept should gain its stature only by the weight of the evidence after objective and rigorous consideration and analysis. Since Darwinian evolution is driven by philosophy rather than the evidence, it is not entitled to be elevated to that of a “unifying concept.” The effect of such an undeserved promotion would only be to make it easier for Naturalistic censorship to operate.The last change in this section deals with the concept of form and function. We think the Sixth Draft misstates what most engineers recognize – that the form of an object is determined largely by the function for which it was designed. The Sixth Draft implies that function comes about as a result of the form of an object or system and thereby twists reality. Function does not follow form, rather, form follows function. When one designs a machine, the designer conceives of a target or purpose for the machine. The machine is then formed to accomplish that goal. We believe this is another example of evolutionary biology and Naturalism ignoring one of the evidences of design that exists in nature – living systems have forms that accomplish their apparent purpose/design in the ecosystem.Revision 5. By The End Of FOURTH GRADE – STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY – Benchmark 3: All students will distinguish between natural and human-made objects.
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“By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
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“STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
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“Benchmark 3: All students will distinguish between natural and human-made objects.

“Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life. Some naturally occurring objects have also been designed, such as birds’ nests, beavers’ dams and bees’ hives. Living systems and other naturally occurring objects give the appearance of design. Evolutionary biologists who adhere to a naturalistic philosophy hold that the design that is seen in living systems is merely an illusion and that these systems are not really designed. Other scientists believe that the available evidence is not sufficient to prove or convincingly establish the claim of illusion.

“Indicators: The student will:
” 4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort human-made versus natural objects.
Example: Compare and contrast real flowers to silk flowers.

” 4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and human-made objects.
Example: Use a magnifier when observing objects.

” 3. Ask questions about natural or human-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers.
Example: The teacher will ask, ‘Is this a human-made object? Why do you think so?’ When observing a natural or human-made object, the child will be asked the reasoning behind his/her answer.
Example: The teacher will ask, ‘Does the real flower appear designed like the human-made flower?'”*******COMMENT To Revision 5This Standard, without our suggested addition, assumes that natural systems are not designed and that this is what distinguishes them from human-made objects. The distinction is supported only by the unstated assumption of Naturalism. It is made in the face of the fact that natural systems actually appear to reflect a far more complex design than that which is evident in human-made objects. This is another example of a proposed misleading teaching.Revision 6. By The End of EIGHTH GRADE – STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
                 Benchmark 5*******
“By The End of EIGHTH GRADE
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“STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
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“Benchmark 5: The students will observe the diversity of living things and relate their adaptations to their survival or extinction.

“Millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms are alive today. Animals and plants vary in body plans, and internal structures and genetic code. Evolutionary biologists theorize that Darwinian biological evolution, gradual changes of characteristics of organisms over many generations, may have has brought variations among populations. Therefore, A structural characteristic, process, or behavior that helps an organism survive in its environment and that is theorized to have resulted from natural selection is called an adaptation. When the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics are insufficient, the species becomes extinct.

“Some scientists believe that living systems exhibit a level of design that cannot be explained by Darwinian mechanisms. Apparent design is perhaps best exhibited in the genetic code that is in a form of a language that provides the instructions for the assembly of organisms. These scientists postulate that some adaptations may reflect design or guided modifications rather than change resulting only from natural selection or other unguided process.“Teachers guide students toward thinking about similarities and differences as students investigate different types of organisms. Students can compare similarities between organisms in different parts of the world, such as tigers in Asia and mountain lions in North America to explore the concept of common ancestry. Instruction needs to be designed to uncover and correct misconceptions about natural selection. Students tend to think of all individuals in a population responding to change quickly rather than over a long period of time. Using examples such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered moths of Manchester helps develop understanding of natural selection over time. (Resource: The Beak of the Finch by Jonathon Weiner). Providing students with fossil evidence and allowing them time to construct their own explanations is important in developing middle level students’ understanding of extinction as a natural process that has affected earth’s species over time.

“Students should also be encouraged to formulate other hypotheses for the fossil record than the Darwinian explanation.”

“Indicators: The students will:
” 7 1. Conclude that millions of species of animals, plants, and microorganisms may look dissimilar on the outside but have similarities in internal structures, developmental characteristics, and chemical processes.
Examples: Research numerous organisms and create a classification system based on observations of similarities and differences. Compare this system with a dichotomous key used by scientists. Explore various ways animals take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.
” 7 2. Understand that adaptations of organisms-changes in structure, function, or behavior-contribute to biological diversity.
Example: Compare bird characteristics such as beaks, wings, and feet with how a bird behaves in its environment. When students work in cooperative groups to design different parts of an imaginary bird, relate characteristics and behaviors of that bird with its structures.
” 7 3. Associate extinction of a species with environmental changes and insufficient adaptive characteristics.
Example: Students use various objects to model bird beaks, such as spoons, toothpicks, clothes pins. Students use beaks to eat several types of food, such as cereal, marbles, raisins, noodles. When food sources change, species without adaptive traits die.”*****COMMENT To Revision 6The suggested revisions to this section use the term “Darwinian evolution” instead of “evolution.” We believe it is misleading to use the term “evolution” without adding a qualifier. Although the term “evolution” can mean simply change over time, the Sixth Draft uses it in a purely naturalistic sense so that all change is attributed only to natural processes such as natural selection. This use, without the “Darwinian” qualifier, will continue to confuse students, their parents and the public.It is also misleading to discuss the issue of what causes life and its diversity without introducing the competing hypothesis – that change may be designed. The omission of this concept is merely Naturalistic censorship at work.The suggested deletions regarding the reference to peppered moths and finch beaks is based on the desire that Kansas Science Standards not encourage a continuation of the misleading use of these examples in science text books as documented in the book, “Icons of Evolution,” which we have provided to you.The balance of the suggested changes are otherwise fairly self-explanatory.Revision 7. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE – STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS
INQUIRY;    Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the fundamental
abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.******
“By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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“STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
“Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the fundamental abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.

“Indicators: The students will:
” 1. Develop through experience a rich understanding and curiosity of the natural (material) world.”

******COMMENT To Revision 7We think it is inappropriate to limit natural to only the material world. Natural sciences are concerned with more than just “material” things. The natural world includes features which can not be reduced to the material. An example is the semantic character of biological information. In Benchmark 2 of Life Sciences for the grade 9-12 it is stated that “DNA provides the instructions that specify the characteristics of organisms.” These instructions constitute biological information having a semantic characteristic that can not be reduced to mass, energy or any measurable quantity. Other examples are the many faculties of naturally occurring minds, including human minds that have not been reduced to the material.*******Revision 8. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE –
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCEBenchmark 3: Students will understand
                 major concepts of Darwinian biological evolution.*******
” By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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” STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
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” Benchmark 3: Students will understand⁽³⁾ major concepts of Darwinian biological evolution.
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(3)” Understand: “Understand” does not mandate “belief.” While students may be required to understand some concepts that researchers use to conduct research and solve practical problems, they may accept or reject the scientific concepts presented. This applies particularly where students’ and/or parents’ religion is at odds with science. See Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy of Sciences, 1998, page 59.

“Understand: Although “Understand” does not mandate “belief” it should be recognized that beliefs are significantly affected by the information that is provided and by omitting to provide other relevant information. Accordingly, diligence should be used to insure that explanations provided do not exclude pertinent evidence or promote certain evidence for philosophic or religious reasons. In particular, teachings should not be driven by naturalism or any religious text, belief or doctrine. ”
________________

“Indicators: The students will understand:

“1. That the theory of Darwinian evolution is both the history of descent with modification of different lineages of organisms from common ancestors and the ongoing adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes (modified from Futuyma, 1998).

“10.2. That many biologists use Darwinian evolution theory to explain the earth’s present day biodiversity-the number, variety, and variability of organisms

“Some biologists believe that natural selection and random genetic drift are not competent to produce the information processing systems that distinguish living from non living systems. They theorize that a mind or some form of intelligence is necessary for the construction and assembly of the kind of information processing systems and biological machinery that comprise each cell in a living organism and the information processing network that comprises the organism. The design hypothesis is supported by (a) the apparent design that is observed in nature and particularly in living systems, (b) the lack of any known physical or chemical law or process that can account for the biological information or information processing systems found in living systems, (c) the apparent irreducible complexity of many biological systems and machines, (d) statistical studies indicating the improbability of such systems arising by chance-based Darwinian mechanisms, (e) comparisons of biological information systems with those that are human- made, (f) the abrupt appearance of phyla in the fossil record and (g) the existence of laws, constants and forces essential to life that fall within statistically improbable ranges.

“Example: Patterns of diversification and extinction of organisms are documented in the fossil record. The fossil record provides evidence of simple, bacteria-like life as far back as 3.8+ billion years ago almost simultaneously with the postulated habitability of our earth. Natural selection, and other processes, can cause populations to change from one generation to the next. A single population can separate into two or more independent populations. Over time, these populations can also become very different from each other. If the isolation continues, the genetic separation may become irreversible. This process is called speciation. Populations and entire lineages can go extinct. One effect of extinction is to increase the apparent differences between populations. As intermediate populations go extinct, the surviving lineages can become more distinct from one another. Although these patterns may be supportive of Darwinian evolutionary theory when extrapolated to the tree of life, the fossil record provides no continuous record of species-to-phyla diversification. Rather the fossil record shows evidence of the appearance of major phyla without previous ancestors (for example: the Cambrian explosion), a pattern that is more consistent with the design hypothesis.

“3. That many biologists recognize that the primary mechanisms of Darwinian evolution are natural selection and random genetic drift.
Example: Natural selection includes the following concepts: 1) Heritable variation exists in every species; 2) some heritable traits are more advantageous to reproduction and/or survival than are others; 3) there is a finite supply of resources required for life; not all progeny survive; 4) individuals with advantageous traits generally survive to reproduce; 5) the advantageous heritable traits increase in the population through time.

“10.4. The sources and value of variation.
Examples: Variation of organisms within and among species increases the likelihood that some members will survive under changed environmental conditions. New heritable traits primarily result from new combinations of genes and secondarily from mutations or changes in the reproductive cells; changes in other cells of a sexual organism are not passed to the next generation.

“5. That many scientists use Darwinian evolution by natural selection as is a broad, unifying theoretical framework in biology.
Examples: Darwinian evolution provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable insights, especially in agriculture and medicine. The postulated common ancestry based on similarity of features of living things allows them to be classified into a hierarchy of groups; these classifications or family trees follow rules of nomenclature; scientific names have unique definitions and value. Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record that correlates with geochemical (e.g., radioisotope) dating results. The distribution of fossil and modern organisms is related to geological and ecological changes (i.e. plate tectonics, migration). Certain aspects of the fossil record, the age of the earth based on radioisotope dating and plate tectonics are consistent with the Darwinian theory. However, this evidence is not inconsistent with the design hypothesis.”

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COMMENT To Revision 8  We believe the commentary that discusses the distinction between belief and understanding in this context is misleading. Due to the use of Naturalism, the teaching of the subject under discussion in fact encourages belief in a philosophy rather an understanding developed through an objective and logical investigation of the two possible causes of life and its diversity. With naturalism, Darwinian evolution is the only possible answer to the question. Hence, the teaching in fact encourages belief rather than a mere understanding.The balance of the suggested revisions are fairly self-explanatory. The discussion of the design hypothesis is necessary to make the statements made not misleading. Also, it is necessary that all historical origin of life accounts be clearly identified only as theories or hypotheses so that they are not confused with facts and general scientific truths.

Revision 9. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE –
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
Benchmark 6: Students will understand the behavior of animals.
                 Paragraph 3*******
” By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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” STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
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” Benchmark 6: Students will understand the behavior of animals.
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” Paragraph 3
“3. Like other aspects of an organism’s biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.
Examples: Behaviors are often adaptive when viewed in terms of survival and reproductive success. Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology, and anthropology.******COMMENT To Revision 9The reasons for this suggested revision have been discussed in the forepart of this letter. It is misleading to flatly state that animal behaviors “have evolved through natural selection,” without first stating that this conclusion is based on a philosophy of Naturalism and that the evidence for the assertion is speculative and conjectural. It is even more misleading, without stating that critical assumption, to then equate the origin of human behavior to the same cause.The lengths to which Darwinists will write evolutionary history to fit their naturalistic perspective is perhaps best exhibited by a review in the December 31, 2000 New York Times Book Review section that discusses a recently published book: Terry Burnham and Jay Phelan, “Mean Genes: From Sex to Money to Food: Taming our Primal Instincts.” The reviewer highlights the excess of speculation and conjecture as follows:”Evolutionary psychologists have been beating the Darwinian drum for some years now, invoking the Victorian scientist’s name to explain everything from sexual attraction and infanticide to selfishness and infidelity. But until now they have been mostly content to put forward their ideas in scholarly books, their bolder assertions — that a proclivity for rape is written in men’s genes, for example — stirring debate on the cocktail circuit and in the halls of academe.

“Now, however, two true believers in the power of evolutionary theory to explain human behavior have taken the next step; they have written a self help book….”

*****“Many critics of evolutionary psychology (and, most likely, some evolutionary psychologists themselves) will wince at the glibness of the book’s tone, the banality of its solutions, the sophomoric quality of its jokes and the unblushing (some might say reckless) alchemy with which it transforms hotly contested theory into unquestioned fact.” (Erica Goode, who writes about human behavior for the New York Times)This report on the sloppy “science” done by two evolutionary psychologists is merely reflective of the degeneration of our critical thinking processes when we allow them to be driven by a philosophy of Naturalism rather than by logic and an unbiased and objective investigation and analysis of the available evidence.Revision 10. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE – STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
                   Benchmark 7 – Paragraph 10.4*******
” By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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” STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
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” Benchmark 7: Students will demonstrate an understanding of structure,function, and diversity of organisms.
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” Paragraph 10.4

“10. 4. The basic biology, diversity, anatomy, ecology and medical effects of major animal groups.
” Example: Animals vary; this variation is important in understanding the function of animals in farming, medical research, etc. Understanding the biology of animals underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.
5. Humans as complex, persons soft machines that require many systems to operate properly.******COMMENT To Revision 10This is a good example of the negative way in which Naturalism has influenced the Sixth Draft where humans are characterized as nothing more than “complex, SOFT MACHINES…” (Emphasis added). Although it is consistent with Naturalism that we be characterized as mere machines, we believe most of us and most scientists will agree that humans are far different than machines. While much of the anatomical structure and physiological processes of the human body may be described in machine-like analogies, it is clear from the intangible faculties of cognition, emotion, mental judgment, “free-will” and moral awareness that human life is far more than simply “soft machinery.” Although we would expect this error to be corrected in whatever standards are adopted, it is illustrative of how a naturalistic philosophy can lead us to a radical, de-humanizing world view.

Revision 11. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
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Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding of the overall functioning of human systems and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.
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“By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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” STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
“As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop an understanding of personal and community health, population growth, natural resources, environmental quality, natural and human-induced hazards, and science and technology in local, national and global settings.
“Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding of the overall functioning of human systems and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.

“Indicators: The students will understand that:

” 1. Hazards and the potential for accidents exist for all human beings.

” 2. The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the disease-producing organism.

Examples: Many diseases can be prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, result from specific body dysfunctions and are not communicable.

” 3. Informed personal choices concerning fitness and health include an involve understanding of chemistry and biology. Mental health can profoundly affect physical health and many factors affecting mental health are outside the realm of natural science.

” 4. Selection of foods and eating patterns determine nutritional balance.

” 5. Sexuality is basic to healthy human development.

” 6. Intelligent use of chemical products relates directly to an understanding of chemistry.”

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COMMENT To Revision 11  This section of the Standards implies that our health is merely a function of naturalistic processes. This is consistent with the naturalistic and materialistic philosophy which underlies the Sixth Draft. Its vice is that it may mislead students into believing that health is simply a function of materialistic causes, thereby avoiding the observable effect that mental and non materialistic processes have on our health. The suggested revision reflects the need to highlight the impact of mental health on our physical health.

Revision 12. By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE – STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE – Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge

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” By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
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” STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE
“As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop understanding of science as a human endeavor, the nature of scientific knowledge, and historical perspectives.
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“Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge

“Indicators: The students will:

“10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge.

“Examples: Scientific knowledge is generally empirically based, consistent with reality, predictive, logical, and is skeptical. Scientific knowledge is subject to experimental or observational confirmation. Scientific knowledge is built on past understanding and can be refined and added to. However, ” Evolutionary biology, in contrast with physics and chemistry, is a historical science — the evolutionist attempts to explain events and processes that have already taken place. Laws and experiments are inappropriate techniques for the explication of such events and processes. Instead one constructs a historical narrative, consisting of a tentative reconstruction of the particular scenario that led to the events one is trying to explain.” (Ernst Mayr, “Darwin’s Influence on Modern Thought” (Scientific American, July 2000, p 80)

“Due to the historical nature of origins science it is especially important that the history be written objectively and logically without philosophic or religious motive.”

COMMENT To Revision 12 This section is misleading because it omits to explain that much of the science covered by the Standards is historical science that is driven by Naturalism. Our suggestions attempt to cure this problem. The suggested revisions have also been discussed in the INTRODUCTION and are otherwise self-explanatory.

Revision 13. Appendix 1 GLOSSARY

 

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Appendix 1
GLOSSARY

“Evolution-Biological or Darwinian Evolution: A scientific theory that accounts for attempts to explain present day similarity and diversity among living organisms and changes in non-living organisms entities over time without attributing any such developments to an intelligent agent. With respect to living organisms, Darwinian evolution has two major perspectives: The long-term perspective focuses on the branching of lineages; the short-term perspective centers on changes within lineages. In the long term, Darwinian evolution is the descent with modification of different lineages from common ancestors. In the short term, Darwinian evolution is the on-going adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes.                                       

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“Evolution-Cosmological: With respect to non-living entities, evolution accounts for evolutionary theory attempts to explain sequences of natural stages of development. Such sequences are postulated to be a natural consequence of the characteristics of matter and energy. Stars, planets, solar systems, and galaxies are examples postulated to be the natural consequences of the interaction of matter and energy.                                       

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“Evolution-Macroevolution: Darwinian evolution above the species level. The evolution of higher taxa and the product of evolutionary novelties such as new structures (May, 1991). It is postulated that Macroevolution continues the genetic mechanisms of microevolution and adds new considerations of extinction, rate and manner of evolution, competition between evolving units, and other topics relevant to understanding larger scale evolution.

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“Science: The human activity of seeking natural logicalexplanations for what we observe in the world around us. These explanations are based on observations, experiments, and logical arguments that adhere to strict empirical standards and a healthy skeptical perspective.

COMMENT TO Revision 13The suggested revisions have been discussed above and are otherwise self-explanatory.Thank you for considering these suggestions.                                                           

Very truly yours,                                                          

s/John H. Calvert
John H. Calvert, J.D., Managing Director

s/William S. Harris
William S. Harris, Ph.D., Managing Director

s/Jody F. Sjogren
Jody F. Sjogren, M.S., CMI, Managing Director

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1. For a copy of Ms. Pearcey’s complete remarks see the last four pages of the document that may be found at:

http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org/June%208%20letter%20to%20Boards.htm 2. Although the existing definition properly focuses on logic over philosophy, the definition of science that we proposed to the Board on August 9, 1999, which eliminates the naturalistic limitation and which defines “science” as a “body of knowledge” rather then as an “activity,” is the one we prefer. That is: “Science is a body of knowledge. It is assembled by systematically seeking explanations for what we observe in nature. The tools of Science are observation, experiment, and logical argument which require strict empirical standards and a healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are ultimately built upon observations. From these, hypotheses and theories are developed. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the natural world that can serve as the basis for further inferences, explanations, and most importantly, predictions. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, inferences, and tested hypotheses.”

3. ” Understand: “Understand” does not mandate “belief.” While students may be required to understand some concepts that researchers use to conduct research and solve practical problems, they may accept or reject the scientific concepts presented. This applies particularly where students’ and/or parents’ religion is at odds with science. See Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy of Sciences, 1998, page 59.

“Understand: Although “Understand” does not mandate “belief” it should be recognized that beliefs are significantly affected by the information that is provided and by omitting to provide other relevant information. Accordingly, diligence should be used to insure that explanations provided do not exclude pertinent evidence or promote certain evidence for philosophic or religious reasons. In particular, teachings should not be driven by naturalism or any religious text, belief or doctrine. “

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KANSAS SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

Draft of Science Writing Team-December, 2000

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication

Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee

Introduction
Mission Statement
Vision Statement
Background Information
Acknowledgment of Prior Work Nature of Science

Statement on Teaching With Tolerance and Respect

A Perspective on Changing Emphases

Table of Changing Emphases in the Nature of Science Content and Changing Emphases to   Promote Inquiry

Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards
Standards
Benchmarks
Indicators
Examples

Keying the Standards to the Kansas Science Assessment

Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards

    Systems, Order, and Organization
Evidence, Models, and Explanation
Constancy, Change, and Measurement
Patterns of Cumulative Change
Form and Function

By The End Of SECOND GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

By The End Of FOURTH GRADE

 Overview of Science Standards K-4
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards 5-8
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7 HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

BY The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards 9-12
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTALPERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Appendix 1: Glossary
Appendix 2: Diagram Explanation of the Science Standards
Appendix 3: Scientific Thinking Processes
Appendix 4: Classical Process Skills
Appendix 5 Bibliography

Dedication

The Kansas State Board of Education The writing committee dedicates the Kansas Science Education Standards to all Kansas students. Our students arc the future of Kansas. With this document, we pass on the legacy of our own teachers, who helped us to know that as lifelong learners of science, we can live more productive, responsible, and fulfillment.

Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee
Stephen Angel, Chemist, Washburn University, Topeka, KS
Ramona Anshutz, Science Education Consultant, Pomona, KS
Ken Bingman, Biology Teacher, Shawnee Mission USD 512, Shawnee Mission, KS
Mary Blythe. K-5 Science Specialist, Kansas City USD 500, Kansas City, KS
Janeen Brown, Elementary Teacher, Wakeeney USD 208, Wakeeney, KS
Steve Case, Director, Kansas Collaborative Research Network, Lawrence, KS
Misty Gawith, Middle Level Teacher, Circle USD 375, Towanda. KS
Letha Gillespie, Chemistry and Physics Teacher, Augusta USD 402, Augusta. KS
Betty Holderread. Science Education Consultant, Newton, KS
Loren Lutes, Superintendent, Oskaloosa USD 341, Oskaloosa, KS and Committee Co-Chair
Naomi Nibbelink, Health Sciences Educational Consultant, Topeka, KS
Jay Nicholson, Biology, Chemistry, Physics Teacher, Rock Creek USD 323, Westmoreland, KS
Karen Peck, Elementary Teacher, Wichita Diocese Schools, Wichita, KS
Linda Pierce, Elementary Teacher, Circle USD 375, Towanda, KS
Barbara Prater, Middle School Teacher, Blue Valley USD 229, Overland Park, KS
Linda Proehl, Assistant Superintendent, Parsons USD 503, Parsons, KS
Greg Schell, Science Education Program Consultant, KSDE, Topeka, KS
John Richard Schrock, Biologist, Emporia State University, Emporia, KS
Twyla Sherman, Science Educator, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS
Ben Starburg, Biology Teacher, Chapman USD 473, Chapman, KS
John Staver, Science Educator, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS and Committee Co-Chair
David Steinmetz, Chemistry and Physics Teacher, Arkansas City USD 470, Arkansas City, KS
Germaine Taggart, Science Educator, Fort Hays State University, Hays, KS
Sandy Tauer, K-1 2 Science and Mathematics Coordinator, Derby USD 260, Derby, KS
Patrick Wakeman, Biology Teacher, Tonganoxie USD 464, Tonganoxie, KS
Brad Williamson, Biology Teacher, Olathe USD 233, Olathe, KS
Carol Williamson, Pre K-12 Science Coordinator, Olathe USD 233, Olathe. KS

KANSAS SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

INTRODUCTION

Mission Statement

The mission of science education in Kansas is to utilize science as a vehicle to prepare all students as lifelong learners who can use science to make reasoned decisions, contributing to their local, state, and international communities.

Vision Statement

All students, regardless of gender, creed, cultural or ethnic background, future aspirations or interest and motivation in science, should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy.

(Adapted from Annenberg/CPM(Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project, 1996, T-7)

The educational system must prepare the citizens of Kansas to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The Kansas Science Standards are intended to enhance the preparation of all students with a focus on With this in mind, the intent for the Kansas Science Education Standards can be expressed in a single phrase: Science standards for all students. The phrase embodies both excellence and equity. These standards apply to all students, regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.

By emphasizing both excellence and equity, these standards also highlight the need to In seeking to serve all students, these standards give students the opportunity to learn science by experiencing it. To reach the focus on excellence and equity, this experience must include:

highly qualified teachers,

time on task, and

multiple opportunities to learn, utilizing rich and varied learning materials and environments.

Scientific inquiry is an essential ingredient to enhance learning for all students. These standards include a combination of discrete and process skills which are intended to result in increased student knowledge as well as higher order thinking skills. Additionally, it is hoped that these standards lead to a higher student motivation for science and the development of new knowledge.

experience science to learn science. Students can achieve high levels of performance with:

• access to skilled professional teachers;
• adequate classroom time;
• a rich array of learning material;
• accommodating work spaces; and
• the resources of the communities surrounding their schools.

Responsibility for providing this support falls on all those involved with the system of education in Kansas.

Inquiry is central to science learning. These standards call for more than “science as a process,” in which students learn discrete skills such as observing, inferring, and experimenting. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations, In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. They also experience first-hand the thrill and excitement of science. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge.

The importance of inquiry does not imply that all teachers should pursue a single approach to teaching science. Just as inquiry has many different facets, so do teachers need to use many different strategies to develop the understandings and abilities described here. These standards rest on the premise that science is an active process. Science is something that students and adults do, not something that is done to them. Therefore, these standards are not meant to encourage a single teaching methodology but instead should elicit a variety of effective approaches to learning science.

The Kansas Science Education Standards:

• Provide criteria that Kansas educators and stakeholders can use to further scientific literacy. judge whether particular actions will serve the vision of a scientifically literate society.

Offer a structure that can ultimately lead to improved science education. •Bring coordination, consistency, and coherence to the improvement of science education.

• Advocate that science education must be developmentally appropriate and reflect a systemic, progressive approach throughout the elementary, middle, and high school years.

These standards should not be viewed as a state curriculum nor as requiring a specific local curriculum. Instead, these standards are recommended as a framework for science education for all students in Kansas to assist local districts in developing local curriculum expectations. A curriculum is the way content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in these standards, can be organized and presented with many different emphases and perspectives in many different curricula.

Purpose of this Document

These standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples are designed to assist Kansas educators in selecting and developing local curricula, carrying out instruction, and assessing students’ students’ progress. Also, they will serve as the foundation for the development of state assessments in science. Finally, these standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples represent high, yet reasonable, expectations for all students.

Students may need further support in and beyond the regular classroom to attain these expectations. Teachers, school administrators, parents, and other community members should be provided with the professional development and leadership resources necessary to enable them to help all students work toward meeting or exceeding these expectations.

Background Information

The original Kansas Curricular Standards for Science were drafted in 1992, approved by the Kansas State Board of Education in 1993, and updated up-dated in 1995. Although all of this work occurred prior to the release of the National Science Education Standards in 1996, the original Kansas standards reflect early work on the national standards. At the August, 1997 meeting of the Kansas State Board of Education, the Board directed that revised academic standards should do the following: academic standards committees composed of stakeholders from throughout Kansas should be convened in each curriculum area defined by Kansas law (reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies).

The science committee was charged to:

1. Bring greater clarity and specificity to what teachers should teach and students should learn at the various grade levels.
2. Build on Review current state curricular standards.
3. Prioritize the standards to be assessed by the state assessments.
4. Provide guidance on advice regarding assessment methodologies.

Acknowledgment of Prior Work

Carrying out this charge, the writing committee built upon and benefitted from a great deal of prior work done on a national level. Two principal expressions of a unified vision and content for science education exist. One is the National Science Education Standards published by the National Research Council, the second is Benchmarks for Science Literacy from Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. According to representatives of both groups, the vision and content overlap by at least 80%. These standards embrace the vision and content of the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and Benchmark’s for Science Literacy (Project 2061 AAAS. 1993). Therefore, the Kansas Science Education Standards are founded not only oil the research base but also on the work of over 18,000 scientists. science educators. teachers, school administrators and parents across the country, that produced national standards as the school district teams and thousands of individuals who contributed to the benchmarks. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards arc consistent with both expressions of a unified vision for science education. Moreover the National Science Teachers Association recently published elementary, middle, and high school editions of Pathways to the Science Standards. The pathways documents provide a framework for aligning The Kansas Science Education Standards with national standards. All of the above mentioned documents contain many resources and teaching applications for further development of the ideas presented in the Kansas Science Education Standards. Permission to use specific segments of text in the Kansas Science Education Standards has been requested from the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Science Teachers Association, and other sources of text and diagrams.

Nature of Science

Science is the human activity of seeking logical natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experimentation experiment, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are built on observations, hypotheses, and theories. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex

inferences and explanations. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, inferences,. and tested hypotheses. Scientific explanations must meet certain criteria.

They must be logical.

They must be consistent with experimental and/or observational data.

They must be testable by scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation.

They must follow strict rules that govern the repeatability of observations and experiments.

Scientific explanations arc consistent with experimental and/or observational data and testable v scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation. Scientific explanation must meet criteria that govern the repeatability of observations and experiments. The effect of these criteria is to insure that scientific explanations about the world World are open to criticism and that they will be modified or abandoned in favor of new explanations if empirical evidence so warrants. Because all scientific explanations depend on observational and experimental confirmation, all scientific knowledge is,. in principle,. subject to change as new evidence becomes available. The core theories of science have been subjected to a wide variety of confirmations and have a high degree of reliability within the limits to which they have been tested. In areas where data or understanding are incomplete, new data may lead to changes in current theories or resolve current conflicts. In situations where information is still fragmentary, it is normal for scientific ideas to be incomplete, but this is also where the opportunity for making advances may be greatest. Science has flourished in different regions during different time periods, and in history, diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technological inventions. Changes in scientific knowledge usually occur as gradual modifications, but the scientific enterprise also experiences periods of rapid advancement. The daily work of science and technology results in incremental advances in our understanding of the world about us.

Teaching With Tolerance and Respect

Science studies natural phenomena by formulating explanations that can be tested against the natural world. Some scientific concepts and theories (e.g. blood transfusion, human sexuality, nervous system role in consciousness,. cosmological and biological evolution, etc.) may conflict with the teachings of a student’s religious community or their cultural beliefs. The goal is to enhance understanding, and a A science teacher has athe responsibility to enhance students’improve students understanding of scientific processes, concepts, and theories. However, science should not be taught dogmatically. Compelling student belief is inconsistent with and in conflict with the goal of education.

Nothing in science or in any other field of knowledge should be taught dogmatically.

A teacher is an  important role model for demonstrating respect. sensitivity, and civility, and teachers. Teachers should not ridicule, belittle or embarrass a student for expressing an alternative view or belief. Teachers model and expect students to practice sensitivity In doing this, teachers display and demand tolerance and respect for the various understandings, capabilities, and beliefs of all students. No evidence or analysis of evidence that contradicts a current science theory should be censored. diverse ideas, skills, and experiences of all students. If a student should raise a question in a natural science class that the teacher determines to be outside the domain of science, the teacher should treat the question with respect. The teacher should explain why the question is outside the domain of natural science and encourage the student to discuss the question further with his or her family and other appropriate source.

Nothing in the Kansas Statutes Annotated or the Kansas State Board Regulations allows students (or their parents) to excuse class attendance based on disagreement with the curriculum, except as specified for 1) any activity which is contrary to the religious teachings of the child or for 2) human sexuality education. (See Kansas Statues Annotated 1111d and State Board Regulations 91-31-3:(g)(2).)

A Perspective on Changing Emphases

The central nature of inquiry in learning science reflects substantive changes-steps forward-from the previous Kansas Curricular Standards for Science, last updated in 1995. The Kansas Science Education Standardsenvision change throughout the system of Kansas education. These standards reflect the following changes in emphases, as shown in the chart below:

Changing Emphases in the Nature of Science Contentand Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry

Emphasize Less	Emphasize More
• Knowing only scientific · Learning which focuses on facts and emphasizes feeding back information	• Understanding scientific concepts and developing abilities.· Addressing a wide range of inquiry
• Covering many science topics	• Studying a few fundamental science concepts.
• Implementing.· Focusing on inquiry as a set of isolated processes.	• Implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, abilities, learning ideas, and integrated processes.
• Activities in isolation from one another.· Planning classroom activities that demonstrate a known science concept.	• Activities that generate, investigate, and analyze science questions.
• Investigation confined is already known.· Confining investigations to a single one class period.	• Investigations over extended periods of time.
• Emphasis on individual · Emphasizing process skills such as observation or inference taken out of context.	• Using multiple process skills such as manipulation, cognitive, and procedural skills in · Finding the context of inquiry.
• Getting an answer.	• Using evidence and strategies for developing · Having individual students or revising an explanation.
• Individuals and groups of students work with analyzing and analyze synthesizing data but not withoutdefending a conclusion.	• Groups of students often analyzing and synthesizing data and defending conclusions.
•reached.· Teachers providing answers to questions about science content.	Students building and communicating scientific explanations.

•Emphasize More

• Learning which focuses on understanding the major concepts of science and on developing the ability to make inquiries of a scientific nature.

. Studying a limited number of important science concepts.

• Focusing on inquiry as necessarily interrelated processes.
• Planning classroom activities that raise science questions which lead to investigation and analysis.
• Planning investigations which are carried out over several class periods.

 Using a variety of process skills within the context of inquiry.

 Developing or altering an explanation through applying scientific methods and gathering evidence.

• Having students work in groups to gather and analyze data, draw conclusions from it, and justify those conclusions.
• Regarding science process skills, these standards call for substantive change, for a decrease in emphasis on implementing inquiry as a set of isolated process skills, with a simultaneous increase in emphasis on implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, ideas, and abilities to be learned. Close examination of the chart above reveals that science processes remain important, as they should. But, in these standards, students acquire proficiency in science processes within the context of learning to do scientific inquiry. This requires students to develop their abilities to think scientifically. Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards

To help readers grasp the extent of changing emphases presented in the chart immediately above, the writing committee has included two sections from the prior Kansas standards in the appendices. Readers can find the Science Process Skills defined in Appendix 4 and the Diagram Explanation for the Science Standards in Appendix 2. Regarding science process skills, these standards call for substantive change, for a decrease in emphasis on implementing inquiry as a set of isolated process skills, with a simultaneous increase on implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, ideas, and abilities to be learned. Close examination of the chart above reveals that science processes remain important, as they should. But, in these standards, students acquire proficiency in science processes within the context of learning to do scientific inquiry. This requires students to develop their abilities to think scientifically. To encourage a uniform understanding of what this means, the writing committee has also included a diagram on the Scientific Thinking Processes in Appendix 3.

Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Each standard in the main body of the document contains a series of benchmarks, which describe what students should know and be able to do at the end of a certain point in their education (e.g., grade 2, 4, 8, 10).  Each benchmark contains a series of indicators, which identify what it means for students to meet a benchmark. Indicators are frequently followed by examples, which are specific, concrete ideas or illustrations of what is intended by the indicator the standards writers’ intent.

Standards

There are seven standards for science. These standards are general statements of what students should know, understand, and be able to do in the natural sciences over the course of their K-12 education. The seven standards are interwoven ideas, not separate entities;, thus,. they should be taught as interwoven ideas, not as separate entities. These standards are clustered for grade levels K-2, 3-4, 5-8, and 9-12. 6-12.

1. Science as Inquiry
2. Physical Science
3. Life Science
4. Earth and Space Science
5. Science and Technology
6. Science In in Personal and Environmental Perspectives
7. History and Nature of Science

Science as Inquiry

Inquiry is central to science learning and to the science process. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, identify faulty reasoning and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop an understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge. Historically, many innovations in science require that the currently popular theories be challenged and then changed. Therefore, the skills learned in inquiry should not be limited to the experiments that the students do in the classroom. In addition, students will learn to identify the assumptions that underlie the hypotheses, theories and laws taught to them in the classroom.

• Physical Science

Physical science encompasses the traditional disciplines of physics and chemistry. Students should develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and force, velocity, structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interaction of energy and matter and their applications in the other sciences such as biology, medicine and earth science.

• Life Science

Students will develop an understanding of biological concepts. Students should learn: the characteristics of life, the needs of living organisms, their life cycles, their habitats, the molecular basis of heredity, and reproduction. They should also learn how organisms interact with their environment, energy transfer from the sun and through the environmental system, the chemical basis for life and behavior of organisms. Students should be able to apply process skills to explore and demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, heredity, regulation and behavior, and ecosystems.

Life Science is interactive with Physical Science,

. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationship among these standards.

• Earth and Space Science

While Earth and Space Science encompasses the traditional disciplines of geology and astronomy and the basic subject matter of these disciplines will be taught, it also includes interactive elements with the Life Sciences, the Physical Sciences, Technology and the environment. Students will develop an understanding of the Earth system, the solar system and the cosmos.

• Technology

Technology encompasses the advances made by man to improve his condition and to develop the tools he needs to accomplish his goals.

• Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives

Students should develop an appreciation and understanding of personal and community health, natural resources, natural and human-induced hazards and improvements, and technological implications in quality of life. All students should be able to research and assess prevailing environmental and personal health issues and develop a rational understanding of man’s relationship to the environment.

Understanding the history, nature of science and limitations of science is fundamental to scientific learning. Students will learn to distinguish between science and other forms of knowledge or beliefs such as philosophy and religion. Science uses observation, experimentation, induction and deduction, and experimental, observational and statistical verification strategies in formulating and testing the validity of explanations for the behavior of the world around us. These explanations ought to be testable, repeatable, falsifiable, open to criticism and not based upon authority. It is also important that students learn to distinguish between scientific information (data), scientific explanations (hypotheses, theories, laws, principles, etc.) and the scientific method (the process of arriving at and verifying scientific explanations). Students should learn the applications and limits of science and the inductive and deductive reasoning processes that underlie science.

Benchmarks

These are specific statements of what students should know and be able to do at a specified point in their schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure students’ progress toward meeting a standard. In these standards, benchmarks are defined for grades 2, 4 , 8, and 10.

Indicators

These are statements of the knowledge or skills which students demonstrate in order to meet a benchmark., Indicators are critical to understanding the standards and benchmarks and are to be met by all students. The set ofindicators listed under each benchmark are is not listed in priority order, nor should the list be considered as all-inclusive. Moreover, the The list of indicators and examples under each indicator should be considered as representative but not as comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Examples

Two kinds of examples are presented. An instructional example offers an activity or a specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator. A clarifying example provides an illustration of the meaningmean or intent of an indicator. Like the indicators themselves, examples are considered to be representative but not comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Keying the Standards to the Kansas Science Assessment

Readers should notice that selected indicators beneath standards have a box containing a number immediately to the left of the number of the indicator. The presence of such an internally numbered box beside an indicator means that the indicator writing committee has been designated this indicator for emphasis on the new Kansas Science Assessment, which will be developed to assess these standards. Thus, a box with the number “4” inside represents an indicator to be emphasized on the Grade 4 Kansas Science Assessment. Similarly, boxes with the numbers “7” or “10” inside represent indicators to be emphasized on the Grade 7 and Grade 10 Kansas Science Assessments, respectively. None of the indicators designated by a boxed-10 will assume competency through the second semester of grade 10. Finally, readers should know that the number represents the first point at which a particular indicator will be assessed. The same indicator may also be included on later assessments.

Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards

Science is traditionally, a discipline-centered activity; however, broad, unifying concepts and processes exist which cut across the traditional disciplines of science. Four Five such concepts and processes, which are named and described below, have been embedded within and across the seven standards listed below. These broad unifying concepts and processes complement the analytic, more discipline-based perspectives presented in the other content standards. Moreover, they provide students with productive and insightful ways of thinking about integrating a range of basic ideas that explain the world about us, including what occurs naturally as well as what is built by humans through science and technology. The embedded unifying concepts and processes named and described below are a subset of the many unifying ideas in science and technology., These were selected from the National Science Education Standards because they provide connections between and among traditional scientific disciplines, are fundamental and comprehensive, are understandable and usable by people who will implement science programs, and can be expressed and experienced in a developmentally appropriate manner during K-12 science education.

Systems, Order, and Organization: The world about us is complex; it is too enormous and complex to investigate and understand as a whole. For the convenience of investigation, scientist and students define small portions for study. These small portions can be systems. A system can be described as, it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. Scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigations. The units of investigation can be referred to as systems, where a system is an organized group of related objects or parts components that form the a whole. Systems are described and organized into categorized as open, closed, or isolated processes. Systems, and can consist of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, numbers, transportation, and education. Systems have resources, boundaries, components, and boundaries. Systems have resources, flow (input and output), and provide feedback. Order is described as–the behavior traits of of units of matter, objects, organisms, or events in the universe. Order – can be described statistically. Probability is the prediction and certainty that scientists and students can assign the determined events or experiments in a defined time and space relative certainty (or uncertainty) that individuals can assign to selected events happening (or not happening) in a specified space or time. In science, reduction of uncertainty occurs through such processes as the development of knowledge about factors influencing objects, organisms, systems, or events; better and more observations; and better explanatory models. Types and levels of organizations categorize thoughtorganization provide. useful ways of thinking about the world that can be useful. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of organisms. Physical systems are can be described at different levels of organization,–such as fundamental particle particles, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organization. Examples of living systems levels of organization include cells, tissue–for example, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, and communities.

Evidence, Models, and Explanation: Evidence consists of observations and empirical data which investigators may utilize and evaluate to make scientific conclusions. Models are schemes and on which to base scientific explanations. Using evidence to understand interactions allows individuals to predict changes in naturally occurring systems and systems built by humans. Models are tentative schemes or structures that correspond to objects and events and enable an investigator to explain and predict. Models also help investigators real objects, events, or classes of events, and have explanatory, and predictive power. Models help scientists and engineers understand how things work. Examples of models are Models take many forms, including physical objects, plans, mental constructs, mathematical equations, and computer -basedsimulations. Scientific explanations are made based on incorporate existing scientific knowledge and new evidence obtained through observations and experiments. “Hypothesis, ” “how, ” “model, ” “principle, ” “theory, ” and “paradigm” from observations, experiments, or models into internally consistent, logical statements. Different terms, such as hypothesis, model, law, principle, theory, and paradigm are used to describe various types of scientific explanations.

Constancy, Change, and Measurement: Change is Although most things are in the process of becoming different. Change might occur in properties of materials, positions of objects, motion, and system form and function. Change in–changing–some properties of objects and processes is are characterized by constancy (e.g., speed of light, charge of an electron, total mass plus energy in the universe), Changes might occur, for example, in properties of materials, position of objects, motion, and form and function of systems. Interactions within and among systems result in change. Changes vary in rate, scale, and pattern, including trends and cycles. Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions. For example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states,(electron charge, speed of light, etc.) Constancy refers to rate, scale, and patterns of change.

Equilibrium refers to the off-setting forces and changes that occur in opposite directions. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly distributed as possible. Homeostasis, balance, and steady state are descriptors of equilibrium. Changes can be quantified and measured. Evidence of change and formulation of explanations may be made based on qualified data. Different scales or measurement systems are utilized for various purposes. The metric system is commonly used in science. Science relies on mathematics to accurately measure change and equilibrium. Important scientific knowledge is to know and understand when to use various measurement systems. as possible. Changes in systems can be quantified, and evidence for interactions and subsequent change and the formulation of scientific explanations are often clarified through quantitative distinctions-measurement. All measurements are approximations, and the accuracy and precision of measurement depend on equipment, technology, and technique used during observations. Mathematics is essential for accurately, measuring change. Different systems of measurement are used for different purposes.. Scientists usually use the metric system. An important part of measurement is knowing when to use which system. For example a meteorologist might use degrees Fahrenheit when reporting the weather to the public, but in writing scientific reports, the meteorologist would use degrees Celsius.

Patterns of Cumulative Change: Accumulated changes through time, sonic gradual and sonic sporadic, account for the present form and function of objects, organisms, and natural systems. The general idea is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. An example of cumulative change is the biological theory of evolution, which explains the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors. Additional examples are continental drift, which is part of plate tectonic theory, fossilization, and erosion. Patterns of cumulative change also help to describe the current structure of the universe.

Form and Function: Form and function refer to are complementary aspects of objects, systems, or organisms. Form most generally relates to the use, function, or operation of an object, system, or organism. organisms, and systems. The form or shape of all object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function. Function frequently relies oil form. Understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Form and function can explain each other.

On the following page, K-12 overview of science content is presented within the seven standards. At the beginning of the 4th (p. 17) Xx), 8th (p. 28) xx), and 12th (p. 54) xx) grade standards,. the overview of science content for that section within the seven standards is connected to the unifying concepts and processes.

By The End Of SECOND GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences As a result of the activities in grades K-2 will allow, all students to develop an understanding of will experience science as full inquiry. In elementary grades, students begin to develop the physical and intellectual abilities of scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: All students will be involved in activities that will develop skills necessary to do conduct scientific inquiries. These activities will involve asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. However, not Not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify characteristics of objects.

Example: States characteristics of leaves, shells,. water, and air.

4 2. Classify and arrange groups of objects by a variety of characteristics.

Example: Group seeds by color,. texture, size;, group objects by whether they float or sink;, group rocks by texture, color, and hardness.

4 3. Use appropriate materials and tools to collect information.

Example: Use magnifiers, balances, scales, thermometers,. measuring cups, and spoons when engaged in investigations.

4. Ask and answer questions about objects, organisms,. and events in their environment.

Example: The student may ask, “What must I do to balance a pencil, ruler, or piece of paper on my finger?” Observe a variety of leaves or rocks and discuss how they arc alike and how they are different.

5. Describe an observation orally or pictorially.

Example: Draw pictures of plant growth on a daily basis;-, note color, number of leaves.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of the activities in grades K-2 will allow, all students the opportunity will be encouraged to explore the world by observing and manipulating common objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects.

All students will have opportunities to compare, compares describe, and sort objects.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using age –appropriate tools and materials.

Example: Compare and contrast size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects.

4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Compare and contrast objects made from wood, metal, and cloth.

4 3. Separate or sort a group of objects or materials by characteristics properties.

Example: Compare and contrast the shape, size, weight, and color of objects.,

4 4. Compare and contrast solids and liquids.

Example: Compare and contrast the properties of water with –the. properties of ice. wood.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in As a. result of the activities for grades K-2 will allow, all students will begin to develop an understanding of biological concepts.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of living things.

Through direct experiences, students will observe living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that living things need air, water, and food.

Example: What children need…what plants need…what animals need.

2. Observe life cycles of different living things.

Example: Observe butterflies, mealworms, plants, and humans.

3. Observe living things in various environments.

Example: Observe classroom plants; take nature walks in your own area and various field trips; observe terrariums and aquariums.

4 4. Examine the characteristics of living things.

Example: Butterflies have wings. Plants may have leaves and roots. People have skin and hair. ,

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades K-2 will allow, all students will be encouraged to observe closely the objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will describe properties of Earth earth materials.

Earth materials may include rock, soil, air, and water.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Group Earth Observe earth materials.

Example: Describe and compare soils by color and texture, sort pebbles and rocks by size, shape, and color.

4 2. Describe where Earth earth materials are found.

Example: Observe Earth earth materials around the playground, on a field trip, or in their own yard.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and compare objects in the sky.

The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Distinguish between man-made manmade and natural objects in the sky.

Example: Compare birds to airplanes.

2. Recognize sun, moon, and stars.

Example: Observe day and night sky regularly.

4 3. Describe that the sun provides light and warmth.

Example: Feel heat from the sun on the face and skin. Observe shadows.

Benchmark 3: All students will describe changes in weather.

Weather includes snow, rain, sleet, wind, and violent storms.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe changes in the weather from day to day.

Example: Draw pictures.

2. Record weather changes daily.

Example: Use weather charts, calendars, and logs to record daily weather.

3. Discuss weather safety procedures.

Example Examples: Practice tornado drill procedures; talk about the dangers of lightning and flooding.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades K-2 will allow, all students to will have a variety of educational experiences that involve science and technology.

Benchmark 1: All students will use technology to learn about the world around them.

Students will use software and other technological resources to discover the world around them.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Explore the way things work.

Example: Observe the inner workings of non-working toys, clocks, telephones, toasters, music boxes.

4 2. Experience science through technology.

Example: Use science software programs, balances, thermometers, hand lenses, and bug viewers.

3. Experience science through technology in the kitchen.

Example: Explore simple machines, i.e., wedge, lever, and wheel, and their combinations, ramp, screw, pulley, roller, and axle from common kitchen items, such as sausage grinder and rolling pins. Identify the simple machines and discover the way they make tasks easier to perform.

Example: try to find how many machines are built into a kitchen device like a hand powered egg beater – a crank or lever.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades K-2 will allow, all students to will have a variety of experiences that provide initial understandings for various science-related personal and environmental challenges.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will demonstrate responsibility for their own health.

Health encompasses safety, personal hygiene, exercise, and nutrition.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discuss that safety and security are basic human needs.

Example Examples: Discuss the need to obey traffic signals, the use of crosswalks, and the danger of talking to strangers.

2. Engage in personal care.

Example Examples: Practice washing hands and brushing teeth. Discuss appropriate types of clothing to wear.

Discuss personal hygiene.

3. Discuss healthy foods.

Example: Cut out pictures of foods and sort into healthy and not healthy groups.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades K-2 will allow, all students to will experience scientific inquiry and learn about people from history.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will know they practice science.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Be involved in explorations that make them wonder and know that they are practicing science.

Example Examples: Observe what happens when you place a banana or an orange (with and without the skin), or a crayon in water. Observe what happens when you hold an M&M, a chocolate chip, or a raisin in your hand. Note the changes. Observe what happens when you rub your hands together very fast.

2. Use technology to learn about people in science.

Example Examples: Read short stories, and view films or videos. Invite parents who are involved in science as guest speakers.

By The End Of FOURTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards K-4

Systems, Order & Organization Evidence, Models and Explanations

Change, Constancy, & Measurement Patterns of Cumulative Change

Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry; understanding about and participating in scientific inquiry

Systems, Order & Organization Evidence, Models & Explanations Change, Constancy, & Measurement Form & Function SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

• Abilities to do, understand, and participate in scientific study X

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

• Characteristics Properties of objects · Location and movement materials –Position and motion of objects

Electricity and magnetism·— Sound

LIFE SCIENCE

• Relationship of organisms to Organisms and their environments environment

Life cycles of organisms living things

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

• Earth’s Properties of Earth materials
• Bodies Objects in the sky
• Dynamic nature of Changes in Earth and sky

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Problem solving skills—–· Apply understandings of science and technology

Abilities to distinguish between natural and human-made objects

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

• Personal health · Changes in surroundings

HISTORY & NATURE of SCIENCE

People practice science

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences As a result of the activities in grades 3-4 will allow, all students to will experience science as full inquiry. Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the sharing results to with others.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop the skills necessary to do full inquiry. However, not

Inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and sharing the results with others. Not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequences of these stages be followed. Students can design investigations to try things to see what happens explore and observe changes in variables.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Ask questions that they can answer by investigating.

Example: Will oil and water mix the size of the opening on a container change the rate of evaporation of liquids? How much water will a sponge hold?

4 2. Plan and do conduct a simple experiment investigation.

Example: Design a test of the wet strength of paper towels; experiment with plant growth; experiment to find ways to prevent soil erosion.

4 3. Employ appropriate equipment and tools to gather data.

Example: Use a balance to find the mass of the wet paper towel, use meter sticks to measure length of the room, our height, arm span. the flight distance of a paper air plane; use the same size containers to compare evaporation rates of different liquids.

4 4. Begin developing the abilities to communicate, critique, and analyze their own investigations and interpret the work of other students.

Example: Describe investigations with pictures, written language, oral presentations.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to As a result of the activities in grades 3-4, students will be given opportunities to increase their understanding of the properties of objects and materials that they encounter on a daily basis. Students will compare, describe, and sort as they begin to form explanations of the world these materials by properties.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects.

Through observation, manipulation, and classification of common objects, children reflect on the similarities and differences of the objects.

Indicators: The students student will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using appropriate tools.

Example: Observe and record the size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects using balances, thermometers, and other measurement tools.

4 2. Classify objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Group a set of objects by the materials from which they are made.

4 3. Describe objects by more than one property.

Example: Observe that an object could be hard, round, and rough. Sort objects by two or more properties.

4 4. Observe and record how one object reacts with another object or substance.

Example: Mix baking soda and vinegar and record observations.

4 5. Recognize and describe the differences between solids and liquids.

Example: Observe differences between a stick of butter, a chocolate bar, or ice as a solid and melted as a liquid. Observe that solids have a shape of their own and liquids take the shape of their container, observe differences between an inflated and a deflated balloon. ice as a solid and water as a liquid.

Benchmark 2: All students will describe the movement of objects. Students begin to When students describe and manipulate objects, they will observe the position and movement of objects when they manipulate objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, dropping, and rolling them.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Move objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, spinning, dropping, and rolling, and describe the movement. motion. Observe that a force (a push or a pull) is applied to make objects move.

Example: Spin a top; roll a ball. Example: Spin or roll a variety of objects on various surfaces.

4 2. Describe locations of objects.

Example: Describe locations as up, down, in front, or behind.

Benchmark 3: All students will recognize and demonstrate what makes sounds.

The concept of sound is very abstract. However, by investigating a variety of sounds made by common objects, students can form a connection between sounds the objects make and the materials from which the objects are made. Plastic objects make a different sound than do wooden objects.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discriminate between sounds made by different objects.

Example: Listen and compare the sounds made make by drums and other musical instruments, such as cans, gourds, plastic spoons, pennies, and plastic disks. Sort a group of objects according to the sounds they make when they’re dropped.

Benchmark 4: All students will experiment with electricity and magnetism. Repeated activities involving simple electrical circuits can help students Students will develop the concept that electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electric current can pass. Magnets attract and repel each other and certain kinds of other materials.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Demonstrate that magnets attract and repel.

4 2. Design a simple experiment to determine whether various objects will be attracted to magnets.

4 3. Construct a simple circuit.

Example: Use a battery, bulb, and wire to light a bulb, make a motor run, produce sound, or make an electromagnet.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades 3-4 will allow, all students to build will develop an understanding of biological concepts through direct experience with living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop a knowledge of organisms in their environments environment.

The study of organisms should will include observations and interactions within the natural world of the child.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare and contrast structural characteristics and functions of different organisms.

Example: Compare the structures for movement of a mealworm meal worm to the structures for movement of a guppy. Compare the leaf structures of a sprouted bean seed to the leaf structures of a corn seed.

4 2. Compare basic needs of different organisms in their environments environment.

Example: Compare the basic needs of a guinea pig to the basic needs of a tree.

3. Discuss ways humans and other organisms use their senses in their environments.

Example: Compare how people and other living organisms get food, seek shelter, and defend themselves.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and illustrate the life cycles of various organisms.

Plants and animals have life cycles that include being born, developing into adults, reproducing, and eventually dying. Young organisms develop into adults that are similar to their parents.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and ask questions about the life cycles of various organisms.

Example: Plant a seed and observe and record its growth. Observe and record the changes of an insect as it develops from birth to adult.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades 3-4 will allow, all students to will observe closely the objects, materials, and changes in their environment, note their properties, distinguish one from another, and develop their own explanations of how things become the way they are.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of rocks, soil, and water, as well as other components of Earth properties of earth materials. Earth materials may include rock, soil, and water.

Playgrounds or parks are convenient study sites to observe.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe a variety of Earth earth materials in their environment.

Example Examples: Observe rocks, soil, sand, air, and water.

4 2. Collect, observe, and become aware of properties of various soils.

Example: Students could bring in samples of soils from their surroundings and observe color, texture, and reaction to water.

4 3. Experiment with a variety of soils.

Example: By planting seeds in a variety of soil samples, students can compare the effect of different soils on plant growth.

4 4. Describe properties of many different kinds of rocks.

Example: Bring rocks from the playground, immerse in water, and observe color, texture, and reaction to liquids.

5. Observe fossils and discuss how fossils provide evidence of plants and animals that lived in the past. long ago. A fossil is a part of a once-living organism or a trace of an organism preserved in rock.

Example: Provide Example: Observe a variety of fossils. for observation. Discuss how fossils are formed; how long it takes an organism to decay or to be scavenged; how long it takes an organism to be fossilized; whether or not all fossilized organisms were dead at the time of burial (i.e. closed clam fossils).

Benchmark 2: All students will describe and compare characteristics of objects that move through the sky. observe and describe objects in the sky. The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe the moon and stars.

Example: Sketch the position of the moon in relation to a tree, rooftop, or building.

2. Observe and compare the length of shadows.

Example: Students can observe the movement of an object’s shadow during the course of a day, or construct simple sundials.

4 3. Discuss that the sun provides light and heat to maintain the temperature of the Earth earth.

Example: When on the playground and the sun goes behind a cloud, discuss why it seems cooler.

Benchmark 3: All students will develop skills necessary to describe changes in the Earth earth and weather.

If the students revisit a study site regularly, they will develop an understanding that the Earth’s earth’s surface and weather are constantly changing.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Describe changes in the surface of the Earth earth.

Example: Students will observe erosion and changes in plant growth at a study site.

4 2. Observe, describe, and record daily and seasonal weather changes.

Example: Record weather observations.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades 3-4 will allow, all students to will have a variety of educational experiences that which involve science and technology. They will begin to understand the design process, as well as which includes this general sequence: state the problem, the design, and the solution. As with the Science as Inquiry Standard, not every activity will involve all five stages. Students will develop the ability to solve simple design problems that are appropriately challenging appropriate for their developmental level.

Benchmark 1: All students will work with a technology design as a part of a classroom challenge. develop appropriate problem solving skills.

Problem solving should occur within the setting of the home and school.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify a simple design problem; design an approach/plan; a plan, implement the plan; solve and check for reasonableness;, evaluate the results and communicate the results.

Example: Compare and contrast two types of string to see which is best for lifting different objects; design the best paper airplane, helicopter, or terrarium; design a simple system to hold two objects together. Examples: Challenge the students to develop a better bubble-making solution using detergent, glycerin, and water; try different kinds of tools for making the biggest bubbles or the longest lasting bubbles.

Benchmark 2: All students will expand and use apply their understanding of about science and technology. Children’s abilities in technological problem solving can be developed by firsthand experience in tackling tasks with a technological purpose, such as identifying what problems these designs involve. They can study technological products and systems in their world: zippers, coat hooks, can openers, bridges, paper clips. Children can examine technological products (such as zippers, snaps, arches, and cars) to learn how the scientific process can lead to solutions for everyday problems.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that science is a way of investigating questions about their world.

Example: Discuss how you think a zipper works; discuss how you think a can opener works. Examples: Why was a zipper designed? What problem did the zipper solve? How has the zipper improved our lives? How is velcro like a zipper? What problem does velcro solve? How has velcro improved our lives?

4 2. Invent a product to solve problems.

Example Examples: Invent a new use for old products; potato masher, strainer, carrot peeler, or 2-liter pop bottle. Use a juice can, 2 liter pop bottle or one-half gallon milk jug to invent something useful. Invent a way to keep the garbage container lid from falling on your head when you dump the trash.

3. Work together to solve problems.

Example: Share ideas about solving a problem.

4. Develop an awareness that women and men of all ages, backgrounds, and ethnic groups engage in a variety of scientific and technological work.

Example: Interview parents and other community and school workers.

5. Investigate how scientists use tools to observe.

Example Examples: Engage in research on the Internet; interview the weatherman; conduct research in the library; call or visit a laboratory.

Benchmark 3: All students will discriminate distinguish between natural objects and those human-made by people objects.

Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.

Indicators: The student will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort human-made versus natural objects.

Example: Compare and contrast real flowers to silk flowers.

4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and human-made objects.

Example: Use a magnifier when observing objects.

3. Ask questions about natural or human-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers.

Example: The teacher will ask, “Is“Is this a human-made object? Why do you think so?““ When observing a natural or human-made object, the child will be asked the reasoning behind his/her answer.

4. Investigate the various systems that connect utilities to the student’s home: Electricity, Gas, Water, Sanitation, Telecommunication, etc. Find the source or entry of the system and points where the utility can be accessed. Find the places where the system is controlled.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades 3-4 will allow, all students to will demonstrate personal health and environmental practices, and to have a. A variety of experiences that provide initial understanding for various science will be provided to understand various scientific-related personal and environmental challenges.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of personal health.

Personal health involves physical and mental well being, including hygienic practices, and self-respect.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that safety involves freedom from danger, risk, or injury.

Example: Classroom discussions could include bike safety, water safety,. weather safety, sun protection.

4 2. Exhibit Assume some responsibility for their own health.

Example: Use recommended Practice good dental hygiene techniques, bathe, cleanliness, and exercise.

4 3. Discuss that various foods contribute to health.

Example: Read and compare nutrition information found on labels; discuss healthy foods;. make a healthy snack.

Benchmark 2: All students will demonstrate an awareness of changes in the environment.

Through classroom discussions, students can begin to recognize pollution as an environmental issue,. scarcity as a resource issue, and crowded classrooms or schools as a population issue.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Define pollution.

Example: Take a pollution walk, gathering examples of litter and trash.

4 2. Develop personal actions to solve pollution problems in and around the neighborhood.

Example: After the pollution walk, children could work in groups to solve pollution problems they observed.

3 . Practice reducing, reusing, and recycling.

Example Examples: Present the problem that paper is being wasted in the classroom. Students could meet and form a plan to resolve this problem.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in As a result of the activities for grades 3-4 will allow, all students to will experience some things about scientific inquiry and learn about people from history.

Experiences of investigating and thinking about explanations, not memorization, will provide fundamental ideas about the history and nature of science. Students will observe and compare, pose questions, gather data and report findings. Posing questions and reporting findings are human activities that all students are able to understand. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science,. and Earth earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an awareness that people practice science. Science and technology People have been practiced science and technology by people for a long time. Children and adults can derive great pleasure from doing science. They. can investigate, construct, and experience science. Individuals, as well as groups of students, can conduct investigations.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Ask a question that can be answered by scientific experimenting and do an experiment that will answer the question. Then repeat the experiment to see if they can get the same results. Recognize that they participate in science inquiry.

Example Examples: What will happen if a plant is under light for different lengths of time ? What will happen if the length or width of the wing of a paper airplane is changed? What will happen if vinegar is dropped on different kinds of rocks? Challenge students to design an investigation to determine the “best” paper towel. Insist they define “best”. Challenge students to find out if a jaw breaker dissolves quicker in water or some other kind of liquid.

Benchmark 2: Determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method.

4 2 . Observe, using various media, historical samples of people in science who have made contributions.

Indicators: The student will:

1. Gather data and develop an explanation about the results of an experiment. Tell what is data, what is the explanation, and what was the method.

Example: The amount of growth of a plant is the data. An explanation might be that more light and the nature of the plant caused more growth, and the scientific method is doing the repeatable and testable experiment and developing the explanation.

Benchmark 3: Learn about people in science.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Learn about the contributions people have made to science.

Example: Short stories, films, videos, and speakers.

By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE Examples: Read short stories, view films or videos; discuss contributions made by people in science.

Overview of Science Standards 5-8 / Systems, Order & Organization / Evidence, Models & Explanations Change, Constancy, & Measurement / Patterns of Cumulative Change / Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry / Designing investigations / Understanding about scientific inquiry

Systems, Order & Organization Evidence, Models & Explanations Change, Constancy, & Measurement Form & Function SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

• Abilities to conduct scientific investigation
• Designing investigations
• Understanding scientific achievement

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

• Characteristics Properties of matter /· Changes in properties of matter / Motions · Force and forces / Transfer of energy motion

LIFE SCIENCE

• Structure and function in living systems /of organisms
• Reproduction and heredity / Regulation inheritance
• Behavior and behavior / Populations regulation
• Ecosystems and

populations

• Adaptations of diversity ecosystems / Diversity and adaptations of organisms X

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

• Structure of the Earth system /· Past and present Earth processes /· Components of the solar system
• Motion and forces which affect Earth earth phenomena

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

• Technological problem-solving
• Understand how Abilities of technological design / Understanding about science relates to and technology X

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Personal health / Populations, resources, & environments / Risks and causes of natural hazards

HISTORY & NATURE of SCIENCE

Scientific habits of mind / Contributions to science throughout history

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students to will develop the abilities to do scientific inquiry, be able to demonstrate how scientific inquiry is applied, and develop understandings about scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities necessary to do the processes of scientific inquiry.

Students can develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, questions, and a design which identifies and controls variables to gather evidence to formulate an answer to the original question, given appropriate curriculum and adequate instruction. Students are to be provided performed opportunities to engage in full and partial inquiries in order to develop the skills of inquiry.

Teachers help students succeed by showing how can facilitate success by providing guidelines or boundaries for student inquiry. Teachers assist students to choose interesting questions, checking designs, giving examples of good experimental strategies and instructing in the proper use of instruments and technology. monitor design plans, provide relevant examples of effective observation and organization strategies and check and improve skills in the use of instruments. technology and techniques, Students at the middle level need special guidance in using evidence to build explanations, inference, and models, and guidance to think critically and logically. and to see the relationships between evidence and explanations.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations.

Example: Explore properties and phenomena of materials, such as a balloon, string, straw, and tape.

Students explore properties and phenomena and generate questions to investigate.

7 2. Design and do conduct a scientific inquiry investigation.

Example: Students design and conduct an investigation on the question, Which paper towel absorbs the most water?““ Materials include different kinds of paper towels, water, and a measuring cup. Components of the investigation should include background and hypothesis, identification of independent variable, dependent variable, constants, list of materials, procedures, collection and analysis of data, and conclusions.

7 3. Use appropriate tools,. mathematics, technologies, and methods technology, and techniques to gather,. analyze and interpret data.

Example: Given an investigative question, students determine what to measure and how to measure, and. Students should display their results in a graph or other graphic format.

7 4. Think critically to make the relationships between evidence and logical conclusions.

Example: Students check data to determine: Was the question answered? Was the hypothesis supported/not supported? Did this design work? How could this experiment be improved?“ What other questions could be investigated?

7 5. Apply mathematical reasoning to scientific inquiry.

Example Examples: Look for patterns from the mean of multiple trials,. such as rate of dissolving relative to different temperatures. Use observations for inductive and deductive reasoning, such as explaining a person’s energy level after a change in eating habits (e.g., use Likert-type tv scale). State relationships in data, such as variables, which vary directly or inversely.

7 6. Communicate scientific procedures and explanations.

Example: Present a report of the your investigation so that others understand it and can replicate the designs design.

Benchmark 2: The students will apply different kinds of investigations to different kinds of questions. Some investigations involve observing and describing objects, organisms or events. Investigations can also involve collecting specimens, experiments. seeking more information, discovery of new objects and phenomena, and creating models to explain the phenomenaInvestigation strategies include observation, specimen collection, experimentation, discovery, and modeling. Instructional activities of scientific inquiry need to engage students in identifying and shaping questions for investigations. Different kinds of investigations suggest different kinds of questions.

To help focus,. students need to frame questions such as “What do we want to find out?”  “How can we make the most accurate observations?” “If” “If we do this, then what do we expect to happen?““Students need instruction to develop the ability to refine and refocus broad and ill-defined questions.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative investigation.

Example: While observing a decomposing compost pile, how could you collect quantitative (numerical, measurable) data? How could you collect qualitative (descriptive) data? What is a quantitative question ?(e.g., Is is the temperature constant throughout the compost pile?)? What is a qualitative question ?(e.g., Does does the color of the compost pile change over time?)?

Example: Each student designs a question to investigate. Class analyzes all questions to classify as qualitative or quantitative.

After reading a science news article, identify variables and write a qualitative and/or quantitative investigative question related to the topic of the article.

10 2. Develop questions and adapt the inquiry process to guide an investigation.

Example: Adapt an existing lab or activity to: write a different question, identify another variable, and/or adapt the procedure to guide a new investigation.

Benchmark 3: The students will analyze how science advances through new ideas, scientific investigations, skepticism, and examining evidence of varied explanations.

Scientific investigations usually create opportunities for further study. Science advances because of often result in new ideas and phenomena for study. These generate new investigations in the scientific community. Science advances through legitimate skepticism. Asking questions about scientific and querying other scientists’ explanations is part of inquiry. Proposed explanations are evaluated by examining all the evidence and providing scientific inquiry. Scientists evaluate the proposed explanations by examining and comparing evidence identifying faulty reasoning, and suggesting other alternatives.

Much time can be spent asking students to scrutinize evidence and explanations, but to develop critical thinking skills students must be allowed this time. Data that is carefully recorded and communicated can be reviewed and revisited frequently providing insights beyond the original investigative period. This teaching and learning strategy allows students to discuss, debate, question, explain, clarify, compare, and propose new thinking through social discourse. Students will apply this strategy to their own investigations and to scientific theories.

Indicators: The students will:.

7 1. After doing an investigation,. generate alternative methods of investigation and/or further questions for inquiry.

Example: Ask “What“What would happen if..?““ questions to generate new ideas for investigation.

10 2. Determine evidence evidences which supports or contradicts support or contradict a scientific breakthrough.

Example: Locate Examine and analyze a scientific breakthrough [such as a Hubble discovery] in a newspaper or science magazine and analyze evidence. Is it using multiple, scientific sources. Explain how a reasonable conclusion is supported.

10.3. Identify faulty reasoning of or conclusions which that go beyond evidence and/or are not supported by data in a current scientific hypothesis or theory..

Example: Analyze hypotheses about characteristics of and extinction of dinosaurs. Identify the assumptions behind the hypothesis and show the weaknesses in the reasoning that led to the hypothesis.

4. Suggest alternative scientific hypotheses or theories to current scientific hypotheses or theories.

Example: At least some stratified rocks may have been laid down quickly, such as Mount Etna in Italy or Mount St. Helens in Washington state.

Eighth Grade – Continued

Standard 2 Example: Analyze evidence and data which support the theory of continental drift.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL, SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students will apply process skills to develop an understanding of physical science including : characteristics of matter, changes in matter, force and motion, and energy transfer. properties of matter, motion and forces and transfer of energy

Benchmark 1: The students will observe, compare, and classify properties of matter.

Substances have characteristic properties. Substances often are placed in categories if they react or act in similar ways. An example of a category, is metals. There are more than 100 known elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds, which account for the living and non-living substances we encounter. Middle level students have the capability of understanding relationships among properties of matter. For example, they are able to understand that density is a ratio of mass to volume, boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure, and solubility is dependent on pressure and temperature.

These relationships are developed by concrete activities that involve hands-on manipulation of apparatuses apparatus, making quantitative measurements, and interpreting data using graphs. It is important to contract characteristics of matter to common experiences so that concepts call be reconstructed. Some relevant questions, are “What happens in a pressure cooker?” Why does adding oil to boiling rice and pasta keep it from boiling over?” “What is in antifreeze and how does it keep your radiator from freezing? “Why do bridges have metal expansion joints?”

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify and communicate properties of matter, including phases of matter, boiling point, solubility, and density.

Example Examples: Measure and graph the boiling point temperatures for several different liquids. Graph the cooling curve of a freezing ice cream mixture. Observe substances that dissolve (sugar) and substances that do not dissolve (sand).

7 2. Using the characteristic properties of each original substance, distinguish components of various types of mixtures.

Example Examples: Separate alcohol and water using distillation. Separate sand, iron filings, and salt using a magnet and dissolving in water. Observe properties of kitchen powders (baking soda, salt, sugar, flour).

Mix in various combinations, then identify by properties.

10 3. Categorize chemicals to develop an understanding of properties.

Example Examples: Create operational definitions of metals and nonmetals and classify by observable chemical and physical properties.

Benchmark 2: The students will observe, measure, infer, and classify changes in properties of matter.

Matter Substances react chemically reacts in predictable in characteristic ways with other matter substances to form new compounds substances (compounds) with different characteristicproperties. Middle level students have the capability of inferring characteristics that are not directly observable and stating their reasons for their inferences. Students need opportunities to form relationships between what they can see and inferences of characteristics of matter.

We cannot always see the products of chemical reactions, so the teacher can provide opportunities for the student to measure reactants and products to build the concept of conservation of mass. “Is“Is mass lost when baking soda (solid) and vinegar (liquid) react to produce a gas?” “How” “How could we design an experiment which would (safely) contain the reaction in a closed container in order to measure the materials before and after the reaction?““ Students need to engage in activities that lead to these understandings.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Measure and graph the effects of temperature on matter.

Example Examples: Change water from solid to liquid to gas using heat. Measure and graph temperature changes.

Observe changes in volume occupied.

10 2. Understand that total mass is conserved in chemical reactions.

Example Examples: Measure the mass of an Alka Seltzer tablet, water, and a container with a lid. Then drop in tablet, close tightly, and measure the mass after the reaction.

10 3. Understand the relationship of elements to compounds.

Example: Draw a diagram to show how different compounds are composed of elements in various combinations.

Benchmark 3: The students will investigate motion and forces.

All matter is subjected to forces that affect its position and motion. Relating motions to direction, amount of force,. and/or speed allows students to graphically represent data for making comparisons. A moving object that is not being subjected to a force will continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed. The principle of inertia helps to explain many events such as sports actions, household accidents,. and space walks. If more than one force acts upon an object moving along a straight line, the forces may reinforce each other or cancel each other out, depending on their direction and magnitude.

Students experience forces and motions in their daily lives when kicking balls, riding in a car, and walking on ice. Teachers should provide hands-on opportunities for students to experience these physical principles. The forces acting on natural and human-made structures can be analyzed using computer simulations, physical models, and games such as pool, soccer, bowling, and marbles.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Describe motion of an object (position,. direction of motion, speed, potential, and kinetic energy).

Example Examples: Follow the path of a toy car down a ramp. The ramp is first covered with tile and then with sandpaper. Consider the total energy (kinetic and potential) at the top of the ramp then at the bottom of it. Note the conversion of potential to kinetic energy. Trace the force, direction, and speed of a baseball, from leaving the pitcher’s hand and returning back to the pitcher through one of many possible paths. What is the source of force that causes a curve ball to move sideways in midflight?

7 2. Measure motion and represent data in a graph.

Example: Roll a marble down a ramp. Make adjustments to the board or to the marble’s position in order to hit a target located on the floor. Measure and graph the results.

10 3. Demonstrate an understanding that an object not being subjected to a force will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line (Law of Inertia).

Example: Place a small object on a rolling toy vehicle; stop the vehicle

abruptly; observe the motion of the small object. Relate to personal experience-stopping rapidly in a car.

10 4. Demonstrate and mathematically communicate that unbalanced forces will cause changes in the speed or direction of an object’s motion.

Example: With a ping –pong ball and 2 two straws, investigate the effects of the force of air through two straws on the ping-pong ball with the straws at the same side of ball, on opposite sides, and at other angles. Illustrate results with vectors (force arrows).

10 7 5. Understand that a force (e.g., gravity and friction) is a push or a pull and investigate force variables.

Example: Explore the variables of (wheel and ramp) surfaces that would allow a powered car to overcome the forces of gravity and friction to climb an inclined plane.

Benchmark 4: The students will understand and demonstrate the transfer of energy.

7 6. Investigate force variables of simple machines.

Example: Investigate the load (force) that can be moved as the number of pulleys in a system is increased.

Benchmark 4: The students will understand and demonstrate the transfer of energy. Energy forms, such as heat, light, electricity, mechanical (motion), sound, and chemical energy are properties of substances. Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for life systems while heat convection currents deep within the Earth earth are an energy source for gradually shaping the Earth’s earth’s surface. Energy cycles through physical and living systems. Energy can be measured and predictions can be made based on these measurements.

Students can explore light energy using lenses and mirrors, then connect with real life applications such as cameras, eyeglasses, telescopes, and bar code scanners. Students connect the importance of energy transfer with sources of energy for their homes, such as chemical, nuclear, solar, and mechanical sources. Teachers provide opportunities for students to explore and experience energy forms, energy transfers, and make measurements to describe relationships.

Indicators:  The students will:

7 1. Understand that energy can be transferred from one form to another, including mechanical heat, light, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.

Example Examples: Design an energy transfer device. Use various forms of energy. The device should accomplish a simple task such as popping a balloon. Explore sound waves using a spring.

7 2. Sequence the transmission of energy through various real life systems.

Example Examples: Draw a chart of energy flow through a telephone from the caller’s caller’s voice to the listener’s listener’s ear.

7 3. Observe and communicate how light interacts with matter: transmitted, reflected, refracted, absorbed.

Example: Classify classroom objects as to how they interact with light: a window transmits; black paper absorbs; a projector lens refracts; a mirror reflects.

7 4. Understand that heat energy can be transferred from hot to cold by radiation, convection, and conduction.

Example Examples: Add colored warm water to cool water. Observe convection. Measure and graph temperature over time.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students to will apply scientific process skills to investigate explore and understand the structure and function of organisms, reproduction and inheritance, behavior and regulation, ecosystems and populations, and adaptations and diversity of organisms. in living systems, reproduction and heredity, regulation and behavior, populations and ecosystems, and diversity and adaptations of organisms.

Benchmark 1: The students will model structures of organisms and relate functions to the structures.

Living things at all levels of organization demonstrate the complimentary nature of structure and function. Disease is a breakdown in structure or function of an organism. It is useful for middle level students to think of life as being organized from simple to complex, such as a complex organ system includes simpler structures. Understanding the structure and function of a cell can help explain what is happening in more complex systems. Students must also understand how parts relate to the whole, such as each structure is distinct and has a set of functions that serve the whole.

Teachers can help students understand this organization of life by comparing and contrasting the levels of organization in both plants and animals. Teachers reinforce understanding of the cellular nature of life by providing opportunities to observe live cultures, such as pond water;, creating models of cells;, and using the Internet to observe and describe electron micrographs. Early adolescence is an ideal time to investigate the human body systems as an example of relating structure and function of parts to the whole.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Relate the structure of cells, organs, tissues, organ systems, and whole organisms to their functions.

Example Examples: Identify human body organs and characteristics. Then relate their characteristics to function. Map human body systems, research their functions and show how each supports the health of the human body. Relate an organism’s structure to how it works(long neck for reaching leaves on a tree).

7 2. Compare and contrast organisms composed of single cells with organisms that are multi-cellular.

Example: Create and compare two models: the major parts and their functions of a single-cell organism and the major parts and their functions of a multi-cellular organism, i.e. amoeba and hydra.

10 3. Conclude that breakdowns in structure or function of an organism may be caused by disease, damage, heredity or aging.

Example: Compare lung capacity of smokers with that of non-smokers and graph the results.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the role of reproduction and heredity for all living things.

Reproduction is an activity of all living systems to ensure the continuation of every species. Organisms reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Every organism requires a set of instructions for specifying its traits. Heredity is the passage of these instructions from one generation to another. Students need to clarify misconceptions about reproduction, specifically about the role of the sperm and egg, and the sexual reproduction of flowering plants. In learning about heredity, younger middle level students will focus on observable traits and older students will gain understanding that genetic material carries coded information.

Teachers should provide opportunities for students to observe a variety of organisms and their sexual and asexual methods of reproduction by culturing bacteria, yeast cells, paramecium, hydra, mealworms, guppies, or frogs. Tracing the origin of student’s own development back to sperm and egg reinforces how life develops from a combination of male and female sex cells.

Discussions with students about traits they possess from their father and mother lead to an understanding of how an organism receives genetic information from both parents and how new combinations result in the students’ unique characteristics.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Conclude that reproduction is essential to the continuation of a species.

Example: Observe and communicate the life cycle of an organism (seed to seed; larva to larva; or adult to adult). Culture more than one generation (life cycle) of an invertebrate organism. Discuss implications of one generation of the species not reproducing.

7 2. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.

Example Examples: Compare the regeneration of a planaria to the reproduction of an earthworm.

Compare the propagation of new plants from cuttings, (which skips a portion of the life cycle) with the process of producing a new plant from fertilization to a seed of an ovum.

7 3. Infer that the characteristics of an organism result from heredity and interactions with the environment.

Example Examples: Choose an organism. Research its characteristics. Infer if these characteristics result from heredity, environment, or both.

10 4. Understand that hereditary information contained in the genes (part of the chromosomes) of each cell is passed from one generation to the next.

Example Examples: In a cooperative setting, have students trace parent characteristics with that of an offspring. Use coin tossing to predict the probability of traits being passed on. Remember that not all traits are single gene traits.

Benchmark 3: The students will describe the effects of a changing external environment on the regulation/balance of internal conditions and processes of organisms.

All organisms perform similar processes to maintain life. They take in food and gases, eliminate wastes, grow and progress through their life cycle, reproduce, and maintain stable internal conditions while living in a constantly changing environment. An organism’s behavior changes as its environment changes. Students need opportunities to investigate a variety of organisms to realize that all living things have similar fundamental needs. After observing an organism’s way of moving, obtaining food, and responding to danger, students can alter the environment and observe the effects on the organism.

This is an appropriate time to study the human nervous and endocrine systems. Students can compare and contrast how messages are sent through the body and how the body responds. An example is how fright causes changes within the body, preparing it for fighting or fleeing.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Understand the effects of a change in environmental conditions on behavior of an organism by carrying out a full investigation.

Example: Select a variable to alter the environment (e.g., temperature, light, moisture, gravity) and observe the effects on an organism (e.g., pillbug or earthworm). Students could also think of their own behaviors and determine environmental conditions that affect behavior.

7 2. Identify behaviors of an organism that are a response made to an internal or environmental stimulus.

Example: Observe the response of the body when competing in a running event. In order to maintain body temperature, various systems begin cooling through such processes as sweating and cooling the blood at the surface of the skin.

10 3. Explain that all organisms must be able to maintain and regulate stable internal conditions to survive in a constantly changing external environment.

Example: Investigate the effects of various stimuli on plants and how they adapt their growth: phototropism, geotropism, and thermotropism are examples.

Benchmark 4: The students will identify and relate interactions of populations of organisms within an ecosystem. A population consists of all individuals of a species that occur together at When studying the interaction of populations of organisms and their surroundings, it is important for students to understand and appropriately use terms such as population, habitat, ecosystem, food web, biotic, and abiotic. It also is critical for students to examine the flow of energy through the ecosystem. All members of a species that live together in a given time and place are known as a population. An ecosystem is all the. All populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem. Populations can be categorized by the functions they serve in an ecosystem: producers (make their own food), consumers (obtain food by eating other organisms), and decomposers (use waste materials). The major source of energy for ecosystems is sunlight. This energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight and is transformed by producers into food energy in a specific place, along with the non-living things with which they interact. Populations contain producers, organisms that make their own food; consumers, organisms that eat other organisms; and decomposers, organisms that break down dead organisms. Sunlight provides energy for the ecosystem. Producers convert the sun’s energy into food energy, which then passes from organism to organism. A food web shows the interrelationship of organisms based upon food consumption. The which we observe as food webs. The resources of an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic, determine the number of organisms in a population is limited by the biotic and abiotic resources available within a population that can be supported.

Middle level students understand populations and ecosystems best when they have an opportunity to explore them actively. Taking students to a pond or a field, or even having them observe life under a rotting log, allows them to identify and observe interactions between populations and identify the physical conditions needed for their survival. A classroom terrarium, aquarium or river tank can serve as an excellent model for observing ecosystems and changes and interactions that occur over time between populations of organisms and changes in physical conditions. Constructing their own food webs, given a set of organisms, helps students to see multiple relationships more clearly.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Recognize that an ecosystem is composed both of all populations living together and of the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem.

Examples.

Example: Create a classroom terrarium and identify the interactions between the populations and physical conditions needed for survival. Participate in a field study examining the living and non-living parts of a community.

7 2. Classify organisms in a system by the function they serve (producers, consumers, decomposers).

Example: Explore populations at a pond, field, forest floor, and/or rotting log. Have students identify the various food webs and observe that organisms in a system are classified by their function.

7 3. Trace the energy flow from the sun (source) to producers (chemical energy) to other organisms in food webs.

Example: Role play the interactions and energy flow of organisms in a food web by passing a ball of string starting with the sun, progressing to green plants, insects, etc.

7 4. Relate the limiting factors of biotic and abiotic resources with a species’ population growth and decline.

Example Examples: Change variables such as a wheat crop yield, mice, or a predator, and chart the possible outcomes. For example, how would a low population of mice affect the population of the predator over time? Participate in a simulation such as “Oh“Oh Deer““ from Project Wild.

Benchmark 5: The students will observe the diversity of living things and relate their adaptations to their survival or extinction.

Millions of species of microorganisms, animals, and plants and microorganisms are alive today. Animals and plants vary in body plans and internal structures. Over time, genetic variation acted upon by natural selection Biological evolution, gradual changes of characteristics of organisms over many generations, has brought variations in among populations. This is termed microevolution. ATherefore, a structural characteristic, process, or behavior that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment is called an adaptation. When the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics or behaviors are insufficient, the species becomes extinct.

Teachers guide students toward thinking about similarities and differences as students investigate different types of organisms. Students can compare similarities between organisms in different parts of the world, such as tigers in Asia and mountain lions in North America to explore the concept of common ancestry. Instruction needs to be designed to uncover and preventcorrect misconceptions about natural selection. Natural selection can maintain or deplete genetic variation but does not add new information to the existing genetic code. Using examples of microevolution, Students tend to think of all individuals in a population responding to change quickly rather than over a long period of time. Using examples such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered moths of Manchester, helps develop understanding of natural selection. Examining fossil evidence assists the student’s over time. (Resource: The Beak of the Finch by Jonathon Weiner). Providing students with fossil evidence and allowing them time to construct their own explanations is important in developing middle level students’ understanding of extinction as a natural process that has affected Earth’s earth’s species over time.

Indicators: The student students will:

7 1. Conclude that millions of species of animals, plants, and microorganisms may look dissimilar on the outside but have similarities in internal structures, developmental characteristics, and chemical processes.

Example Examples: Research numerous organisms and create a classification system based on observations of similarities and differences. Compare this system with a dichotomous key used by scientists. Explore various ways animals take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.

7 2. Understand that microevolution, the adaptation adaptations of organisms-by changes in structure, function, or behavior-favors beneficial genetic variations and contributes contribute to biological diversity.

Example: Compare bird characteristics such as beaks, wings, and feet with how a bird behaves in its environment. When students work in cooperative groups to design different parts of an imaginary,bird. Relate characteristics and behaviors of that bird with its structures.

7 3. Associate extinction of a species with environmental changes and insufficient adaptive characteristics.

Example: Students use various objects to model bird beaks, such as spoons, toothpicks, clothespins, to model bird beaks. clothes pins. Students use “beaks”  to “eat” several types of food, such as cereal, marbles, raisins, noodles. When “food” sources change, those organisms which have not adapted die. food sources change, species without adaptive traits die.

4. Understand that natural selection acts only on the existing genetic code and adds no new genetic information.

Example: Research hemophilia among the Royalty of the 17th – 19th centuries.

5. The effect of selection on genetic variation is a well-substantiated theoretical framework in biology.

Example: Selection (natural and artificial) provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable applied answers, especially in agriculture and medicine.

STANDARD 4: EARTH and SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students to study will apply process skills to explore and develop an understanding of the structure and of the earth system, earth’s history of Earth, and earth in the solar system.

Benchmark 1: The students will understand that the structure of the Earth’s earth’s system is constantly changing due to the Earth’s earth’s physical and chemical processes.

Earth has four major interacting systems: the lithosphere/geosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. Earth material is constantly being reworked and changed. The rock cycle, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle are powered by physical Physical forces, chemical reactions, heat, energy, and biological processes. The solid Earth is layered with a lithosphere, which power the rock cycle, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle. The outermost layer of the earth is the lithosphere. Under the lithosphere is a hot, convecting mantle, and a dense, metallic metal-rich core. Huge Massive lithospheric plates containing continents and oceans slowly move in response to movement in the mantle. These plate motions also result in earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain -building. Landforms are caused by constructive and destructive Earth forces. building. Constructive and destructive earth forces change earth’s landforms.

Middle level students Students learn about the major Earth earth systems and their relationships through direct and indirect evidence. First-hand observations of weather, rocks, soil, oceans, and gases lead students to make inferences about some of those major systems. Indirect evidence is used when determining the composition and movement in Earth’s mantle and core. Continents float on the denser mantle, like slabs of wax on the surface of water. earth’s mantle and core.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Predict patterns from data collected.

Example: Map the movement of weather systems, and predict the local weather conditions.

7 2. Identify properties of the solid Earth earth, the oceans and fresh water, and the atmosphere.

Example Examples: Create a concept map of Earth earth materials using links to show connections, such as water causing erosion of solid, wind evaporating water, etc. Compare the densities of salt and fresh water. Classify rocks, minerals, and soil by properties. Compare heating and cooling over land and water.

7 3. Model Earth’s earth’s cycles.

Example Examples: Create rock cycle and water cycle dioramas. Illustrate global ocean and wind currents. Flow chart a carbon atom through the carbon cycle.

10 4. Based on the prevailing model, connect the layers of the lithosphere with Earth’s plate movement that results 10 4. Model earth’s plate movements that result in major geologic events and landform development.

Example: Plot the location of the Earth’s earth’s plate boundaries and compare with recent volcano and earthquake activity in the Ring of Fire. Refer to U.S. Geologic Survey data available on the Internet.

10 5. Understand water’s major role in changing the solid surface of the Earth earth, such as the effect of oceans on climates and water as an erosional force.

Example Examples: Map major climate zones and relate to ocean currents.

Model top soil erosion.

Measure sediment load in a nearby stream.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand that past and present Earth processes are similar.

The constructive and destructive forces we see today are similar to those that occurred in the past. Constructive forces include  crustal formation by plate movement, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and deposition of sediments. Destructive forces include weathering, erosion, and glacial action. Earth’s history is written in the layers of the rocks and clues in the rocks can be used to piece together a story and picture. Geologic processes that form rocks and mountains today are similar to processes that formed rocks and mountains over a long period of time in the distant past.

Teachers can provide opportunities for students to observe and research evidence of changes that can be found in the Earth’s earth’s crust. Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, sandstone, and shale show deposition of sediments over time. Volcanic flows of ancient volcanoes and Earthquake earthquake damage can show us what to expect from modern day catastrophes. Glacial deposits show past ice ages and global warming and cooling. Some fossil beds enable the matching of rocks from different continents, and other fossil beds show how organisms developed over a long period of time. Students will need to apply knowledge of Earth’s earth’s past to make decisions relative to Earth’s earth’s future.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Examine Understand the dynamics of Earth’s earth’s constructive and destructive forces over time.

Example: Discuss the destructive force of volcanoes and resultant rocks. Discuss major river floods and resultant sedimentary rock deposition. Examples: Construct models of rock types using food. Peanut brittle without the peanuts can illustrate a molten material crystallizing to form a solid substance similar to an igneous rock. Use an acid (vinegar or dilute HCl) to show the chemical similarity of limestone rock and fossilized shells. Students take a piece of sandstone and apply destructive forces to change it into sand. Observe the effects of weathering on various rock types.

7 2. Compare geologic evidence from different areas. 10 2. Model geologic time to scale.

Example: “Toilet Paper Earth History”: Plot the major events [last ice age, beginning of Paleozoic Era, etc.] of earth history on a roll of toilet paper. Each sheet of toilet paper = 100 million years.

10 3. Relate geologic evidence to a record of earth’s history.

Example: Locate the same rock layer in 2 two local road cuts; give fossil evidence and other kinds of evidence that the layer is the same in both exposures. Compare sedimentary deposits from other areas. Are all layers of the geologic column present? If not, which ones are missing? Are the layers of the geologic column always found in the expected sequence? the types of organisms shown in the fossils found in a Kansas shale (mudstone) and a Kansas limestone and infer the ocean depositional environment from which the rock layer was formed.

10 3 10 4. Compare the current arrangement of the continents with the arrangement of continents throughout the Earth’s earth’s history.

Example: Cut Examples: Cut out continents from a world map and slide them together to see how they fit. Plot each continental plate’s latitude and longitude through Earth history. earth history.

Benchmark 3: The students will identify and classify planets and other solar system components.

The solar system consists of the sun, which is an average-sized star in the middle of its life cycle, and the nine planets and their moons, asteroids, and comets, which travel in elliptical orbits around the sun. The sun, the central and largest body in the system, radiates energy outward. The Earth earth is the third of nine planets in the system, and has one moon. Other stars in our galaxy are visible from Earth earth, as are distant galaxies, but are so distant they appear as pinpoints of light. Scientists have discovered much about the composition and size of stars, and how they move in space.

Space and the solar system are of high interest to middle level students. Teachers can help students take advantage of the many print and on-line resources, as well as  becoming amateur sky-watchers.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the planets.

Example: Search reliable Internet sources for current information. Create a graphic organizer to visualize comparisons of planets.

7 2. Develop understanding of spatial relationships via models of the  earth/moon/ planets/sun system to scale.

Example Examples: Model the solar system to scale in a long hallway or school yard using rocks for rocky planets and balloons for gaseous planets. Designate a large object as the sun. Model the  earth/moon/sun system to scale with the question: If the Earth earth were the size of a tennis ball, how big would the moon be? How big would the sun be? How far apart would they be?

3. Research smaller components of the solar system such as asteroids and comets.

Example: Identify and classify characteristics of asteroids and comets.

10 4. Identify the sun as a star and compare its characteristics to those of other stars.

Example: Examples: Classify, bright stars visible from Earth earth by color, temperature, apparent brightness, and distance from Earth. earth. Sequence the life cycle of a star.

5. Trace scientific 5. Trace cultural, as well as scientific, influences on the study of astronomy.

Example: Research ancient observations and explanations of the heavens and compare with today’s knowledge.

Benchmark 4: The students will model motions and identify forces that explain Earth earth phenomena.

There are many motions and forces that affect the Earth earth. Most objects in the solar system have regular motions, which can be tracked, measured, analyzed, and predicted. Such These notions can explain such phenomena as the day, year, seasons, tides, phases of the moon, and eclipses of the sun and moon, can be explained by these motions. The force that governs the motions ofwithin the solar system, and keeps the planets in orbit around the sun, and the moon around the Earth earth, is gravity. Phenomena on the Earth’s earth’s surface, such as winds, ocean currents, the water cycle, and the growth of plants, receive their energy from the sun.

Misconceptions abound among middle level students about such concepts as the cause of the seasons and the reasons for the phases of the moon. Hands-on activities, role-playing, models, and computer simulations are helpful for understanding the relative motion of the planets and moons. Teachers can help students make connections between force and motion concepts, such as Newton’s Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Gravitational Force Universal Gravitation, and applications to Earth earth and space science. Many ideas are misconceptions which could be considered in a series of “ what if “ questions: What if the sun’s energy did not cause cloud formation and other parts of the water cycle? What if the Earth earth rotated once a month? What if the Earth’s earth’s axis was not tilted?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Demonstrate object/space/time relationships that explain phenomena such as the day, the month, the year, and the seasons.

Example: Use an Earth/moon/sun earth/moon/sun model to demonstrate a day, a month, a year, and the seasons.

10 2. Model Earth/moon earth/moon positions that create phases of the moon and eclipses.

Example: Use students to demonstrate the relative positions of the sun, Earth earth and moon to create eclipses, phases of the moon, and tides, using a circle of students representing the fluid water.

10 3. Apply principles of force and motion to an understanding of the solar system.

Example Examples: Use string and ball model to illustrate gravity and movement, creating an orbit around a hand.

10 4. Understand the effect of the angle of incidence of solar energy striking the Earth’ssurface earth’s surface on the amount of heat energy absorbed at the Earth’s earth’s surface.

Example Examples: Place a piece of graph paper on the surface of a globe at the equator. Hold a flashlight 10 cm. from the paper parallel to the globe. Mark the lighted area of the paper. Then, place the graph paper at a high latitude. Again hold the flashlight parallel to the paper 10 cm from the paper. Compare the areas lit at the equator and at the high latitude, with the same amount of light energy. Where does each lighted square of paper receive the most energy?

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Standard 5

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to demonstrate technological problem solving and understand how science relates to technology.

Benchmark 1: The As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will demonstrate abilities of technological design and understandings about science and technology.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities of technological design..

Technological design focuses on creating new products for meeting human needs. Students need to develop abilities to identify specific needs and design solutions for those needs. The tasks of technological design include addressing a range of needs, materials, and aspects of science. Suitable experiences could include designing inventions  that meet a need in the student’s life.

Building a tower of straws is a good start for collaboration and work in design preparation and construction. Students need to develop criteria for evaluating their inventions/products. These questions could help develop criteria: Who will be the users of the product? How will we know

if the product meets their needs? Are there any risks to the design? What is the cost? How much time will it take to build? Using their own criteria, students can design several ways of solving a problem and evaluate the best approach. Students could keep a log of their designs and evaluations to communicate the process of technological design. The log might address these questions: What is the function of the device? How does the device work? How did students come up with the idea? What were the sequential steps taken in constructing the design? What problems were encountered?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify situations that can be improved by appropriate problems for technological design.

Example Examples: Design a measurement instrument (e.g., weather instruments) for a science question that students are investigating.

Select and research a current technology, then project how it might change in the next 20 years.

7 2. Design a solution or product, implement the proposed design, evaluate the product.

Example: Design, create and evaluate a product that meets a need or solves a problem in a student’s life.

3. Communicate the process.
4. Explain the method of technological design.

Example: Keep a log of designing [and building] a technology, then use the log to explain the process.

Benchmark 2: The students will develop understandings of the similarities, differences, and relationships in science and technology.

The primary difference between science and technology is that science investigates to answer questions about the natural world and technology creates a product to meet human needs by applying scientific principles. Middle level students are able to evaluate the impact of technologies, recognizing that most have both benefits and risks to society. Science and technology have advanced through contributions of many different people, in different cultures, at different times in history.

Students may compare and contrast scientific discoveries with advances in technological design. Students may select a device they use, such as a radio, microwave, or television, and compare it to one their grandparents used.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare the work of scientists with that of applied scientists and technologists.

Example: A scientist studies air pressure. An A technologist designs an airplane wing. Complete a Venn diagram to compare the processes of scientists and technologists.

2. Evaluate limitations and trade-offs of technological solutions.

Example: Select a technology to evaluate using a graphic organizer. List uses, limitations, possible consequences.

Example: Show the development of compound and complex machines in today’s technological culture, i.e., a simple hand twist drill encompasses wheel, gears, helix, wedge, lever. The power screwdriver/drill adds to the complexity. An electric motor, control switch, torque limitation, and power storage battery further enhances its utility.

Example: Investigate the complexity of current consumer electronics devices, such as a VCR, video camcorder, or digital camera. Identify:

mechanical features,
optical features,
electronic features, and
stylistic features.
Compare costs and features of competitive products.

3. Identify contributions to science and technology by many people and many cultures.

Example: Using a map of the world, mark the locations for people and events that have contributed to science.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students to use will apply process skills to examine explore and develop an understanding of issues concerning of personal health, population, the resources and environment, and natural hazards.

Benchmark 1: The students will make decisions based on scientific understanding of personal health.

Regular exercise, rest, and proper nutrition are important to the maintenance and improvement of human health. Injury and illness are risks to maintaining health. Middle level students need opportunities to apply science learning to their understanding of personal health and science-based decision –making related to health risks.

Parents and teachers need to work in partnership to help students understand that they, the middle level students, not some outside force (parents, school, the law), are the ultimate decision makers about their own personal health. The challenge to teachers is to help students apply scientific understanding to health decisions by giving the students opportunities to gather evidence and draw their own conclusions on topics such as smoking, healthy eating, wearing bike helmets, and wearing car seat belts.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify individual nutrition, exercise, and rest needs based on science.

Example: Design, implement, and self-evaluate a personal nutrition and exercise program.

7 2. Use a systemic approach to thinking critically about personal health risks and benefits.

Example: Compare and contrast immediate benefits of eating junk food to long term benefits of a lifetime of healthy eating.

Example: Evaluate the risks and benefits of foods, medicines, and personal products. Evaluate and compare the nutritional and toxic properties of various natural and synthetic foods.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the impact of human activity on resources and environment.

When an area becomes overpopulated by a species, the environment will change due to the increased use of resources. Middle level students need opportunities to learn about concepts of carrying capacity. They need to gather evidence and analyze effects of human interactions with the environment.

Teachers can help their students understand these global issues by starting locally. “What changes in the atmosphere are caused by all the cars we use in our community?““ Ground-level ozone indicators provide an opportunity to quantify the effect. “After a heavy rain, where does the water go that runs off your lawn?“  “What happens to that water source if your lawn was just fertilized before the rain?““ The role of the teacher is to help students to apply scientific understanding, gained through their own investigations, of environmental issues. Teachers should help students base environmental decisions on understanding, not emotion.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Investigate the effects of human activities on the environment.

Example Examples: Count the number of cars that pass the school during a period of time. Investigate the effects of traffic volume on environmental quality (e.g., water and air quality, plant health).

Investigate the effects of repeatedly walking off the sidewalks. Discuss the implications to the environment. Participate in an environmental Internet study.

2. Base decisions on perceptions of benefits and risks.

Example: What temporary changes in the atmosphere are caused by the cars and trees in our community? Evaluate the benefits of burning fossil fuels to meet energy needs against the risks of global warming.

Benchmark 3: The students will understand that natural hazards are dynamic examples of Earth earth processes which cause us to evaluate risks.

California has earthquakes. Florida has hurricanes. Kansas has tornadoes. Natural hazards can also be caused by human interaction with the environment, such as channeling a stream. Middle level students need opportunities to identify the causes and human risks and challenges of natural hazards.

Teachers can call help students use data on frequency of occurrence of natural hazard events both to dispel unnatural fears for some students and overcome the common middle level student misconception of invincibility (it won’t happen to me). “ What would you need in a tornado survival kit to keep in the basement for your family? “ This question would cause students to assess the kinds of damage caused by a tornado (need a flashlight because electrical lines may be down) and the kinds of support services available in the community.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Evaluate risks and define appropriate actions associated with natural hazards.

Example: Find news articles that show inadvisable risks taken in a natural hazard situation.

10 2. Recognize patterns of internal and external Earth earth processes that may result in natural hazards.

Example: Build wood block models of plate boundary interaction: subduction, translation, and spreading.

10 3. Communicate human activities that can cause/contribute to natural hazards.

Example: How can channeling a stream promote flooding downstream? Borrow a County Conservation Commission’s stream trailer to investigate the dynamics of a stream and the effects of human interaction with the stream.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 5-8 will allow, all students to will examine and develop an understanding of science as a historical human endeavor.

Benchmark 1: The students will develop scientific habits of mind. thinking.

Science requires different varied abilities based depending on the subject studied field of study, type of inquiry, and cultural context. The abilities characteristic of those engaged in scientific investigations include: reasoning, intellectual honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, appropriate skepticism, open-mindedness, and the ability to make logical conclusions based on current evidence.

Teachers can support the development of scientific habits of mind by providing students with on-going instruction using inquiry as a framework. Middle level students Students can apply science concepts in investigations. They can work individually and on teams while conducting inquiry. They can share their work through varied mediums, and they can self-evaluate their learning. High expectations for accuracy, reliability, and openness to differing opinions should be exercised. The indicators listed below can be embedded within the other standards.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Practice intellectual honesty.

Example: Analyze news articles to evaluate if the articles apply statistics/data to bring clarity, or if the articles use data to mislead.

Analyze data and recognize that an hypothesis not supported by data should not be perceived as a right or wrong answer.

2. Demonstrate skepticism appropriately.

Example: Students will attempt to replicate an investigation to support or refute a conclusion.

3. Learn about falsification. Display open-mindedness to new ideas.

Example: What would we accept as proof that the theory that all cars are black is wrong? How many times would we have to prove the theory wrong to know that it is wrong? Answers: One car of any color but black and only one time. No matter how much evidence seems to support a theory, it only takes one proof that it is false to show it to be false. It should be recognized that in the real world it might take years to falsify a theory. 

Example: Share interpretations that differ from currently held explanations on topics such as global warming and dietary claims. Evaluate the validity of results and accuracy of stated conclusions.

4. Base decisions on research evidence.

Example: Review results of individual, group, or peer investigations to assess accuracy of conclusions based upon data collection and analysis and use of evidence to reach a conclusion.

Benchmark 2: The students will research contributions to science throughout history.

Scientific knowledge is not static. New knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries that may be beneficial or harmful. Contributions to scientific knowledge can be met with resistance causing a need for replication and open sharing of ideas. Scientific contributions have been made over an expanse of time by individuals from varied cultures, ethnic backgrounds, and across gender and economic boundaries.

Students should engage in research realizing that the process may be a small portion of a larger process or of an event that takes place over a broad historical context. Teachers should focus on the contributions of scientists and how the culture of the time influenced their work. Reading biographies, interviews with scientists, and analyzing vignettes are strategies for understanding the role of scientists and the contributions of science throughout history.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Recognize that new knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries.

Example: Discuss recent discoveries that have replaced previously held knowledge, such as safety of freon Freon or saccharine use, knowledge concerning the transmission of AIDS, cloning, Pluto’s status as a planet.

2. Replicate historic experiments to understand principles of science.

Example: Rediscover principles of electromagnetism by replicating Oerstad’s compass needle experiment. (Compass needle deflects perpendicular to current carrying wire.)

3. Relate contributions of men and women to the fields of science.

Example: Research the contributions of men and women of science, create a timeline to demonstrate the ongoing contributions of dedicated scientists from across ethnic, religious and gender lines.

By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards 9-12

Systems, Order & Organization / Evidence, Models & Explanations / Change. Constancy, & Measurement

Patterns of Cumulative Change / Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

PHYSICAL SCIENCE-CHEMISTRY Structure of atoms / Structure and properties of matter / Chemical reactions

PHYSICAL SCIENCE-PHYSICS Motions and forces / Conservation of energy & increase of disorder / Interactions of energy and matter

LIFE SCIENCE / The cell / Molecular basis of heredity / Biological evolution / Interdependence of organisms / Matter, energy & organization in living systems/Behavior of organisms/ Structure, function, and diversity of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE Energy in the earth system / Interactions of earth’s subsystems / Origin and evolution of the earth system / Origin and evolution of the universe

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY / Abilities of technological design and understanding about science & technology

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES / Personal health / Population growth / Natural resources & environmental quality / Natural and human-induced hazards / Science, technology and society

HIST. & NATURE OF SCI. Science as a human endeavor/Nature of scientific knowledge/Historical perspectives

Systems, Order & Organization Evidence, Models & Explanations Change, Constancy, & Measurement Form & Function SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

• Abilities to conduct scientific inquiry

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

• Atomic structure
• Properties of matter
• Chemical reactions

PHYSICAL SCIENCE- PHYSICS

• Force and motion
• Entropy and conservation of energy
• Interactions between matter and energy

LIFE SCIENCE

• Cellular structure and function
• Molecular basis of inheritance
• Interdependence of living things
• Organization of living systems and uses of matter and energy in those systems
• Behavior of living things
• Structure, function, and diversity of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

• Energy flow in the Earth
• Interactions of Earth’s systems
• Origin and evolution of the universe

TECHNOLOGY

• Technological problem solving and understanding how science relates to technology

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

• Health
• Growth of population
• Natural resources and the environment
• Hazards produced naturally and by humans
• Interaction of science, technology and society

HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

• Science as a human pursuit
• Characteristics of scientific knowledge
• History of science

By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences As a result of their activities in grades 9-12 will allow, all students to will develop the abilities necessary to conduct do scientific investigations and understand inquiry and understandings about scientific advancements inquiry.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the fundamental abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Develop through experience a rich understanding and curiosity of the natural (material) world.

Example: Students must have a rich set of experiences to draw on in order to ask and evaluate research questions.

10 2. Develop an understanding of the questions and identify concepts that guide scientific experimentation. investigations.

Example: The investigator acquires a knowledge base, forms hypotheses, designs experiments, and collects, analyzes, and interprets data. Examples: Formulate a testable hypothesis, where appropriate, and demonstrate the logical connections between the scientific concepts guiding an hypothesis and the design of an experiment. Demonstrate a knowledge base, appropriate procedures, and conceptual understanding of scientific investigations.

10 3. Design scientific experiments. 10 3. Design and conduct scientific investigations.

Example: Designing an experiment requires that a student has some background knowledge and that he safely use the proper materials and equipment and uses proper investigative procedures (including Examples: Requires introduction to the major concepts in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety precautions, assistance with methodological problems, recommendations for use of technologies, clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry, and scientific knowledge obtained from sources other than the actual investigation. May also require student clarification of the question, method (including replication), controls, variables, and replications). In the interpretation of the data collected and the reporting of results, students should use available technology, proper display of the data, proper use of logic, and proper defense of their interpretations. display of data, revision of methods and replication of explanations, followed by a public presentation of the results with a critical response from peers. Always, students must use evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument for their proposed explanations.

10 4. Interpret and communicate about the results of scientific experiments, using mathematics and technology. 10 4. Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.

Example: Mathematics guides and improves Examples: A variety of technologies, such as hand tools, measuring instruments, and calculators, should be an integral component of scientific investigations. The use of computers for the collection, organization, analysis, and display of data is also a part of this standard. Mathematics plays an essential role in all aspects of an inquiry. Mathematical tools and models guide and improve the posing of questions, gathering data, constructing explanations, and communicating results.

Calculators and computers are important in mathematical analysis.

Example: Technology is used to gather and manipulate data. New techniques and tools provide new evidence to guide inquiry and new methods to gather data, thereby contributing to the advance of science. The accuracy and precision of the data, and therefore the quality of the exploration, depends on the technology used.

5. Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.

Standard 1

5. Use evidence and logic to formulate scientific models and explanations.

Example: The formulation of a model or explanation should result from the student’s investigation. Discussions, based on evidence obtained, scientific knowledge, and logic mayExamples: Student inquiries should culminate in formulating an explanation or model. Models can be physical, conceptual, or mathematical. In the process of answering the questions, the students should engage in discussions that result in the revision of the student’s model or explanation. their explanations. Discussions should be based on scientific knowledge, the use of logic, and evidence from their investigations.

6. Formulate alternative models and explanations. 6. Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.

Example: Students should determine which models and explanations are the best based upon evidence, logic, and Example: Emphasize the critical abilities of analyzing an argument by reviewing current scientific understanding, weighing the evidence, and examining the logic so as to decide which explanations and models are best. In other words, although there may be several plausible explanations, students should be able to use scientific criteria to determine the supported explanation(s)..

7. Explain 7. Communicate and defend a scientific interpretation argument.

Example: These abilities include writing and speaking skills, the reviewing of results from other related investigations, clearly explaining the experimental procedures used procedures, expressing concepts, reviewing information, summarizing data, using language appropriately, developing diagrams and charts, explaining statistical analysis, speaking clearly and logically,constructing a reasoned argument to support the interpretation of experimental data, and giving logical responses to critiques. , and responding appropriately to critical comments.

STANDARD 2A: CHEMISTRY

STANDARD 2A: PHYSICAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop an understanding of the structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interactions of energy and matter.

Benchmark 1: The student will understand the structure of the atom.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Atoms are the fundamental organizational unit of matter.

10 2. Atoms have smaller components that have measurable mass and charge.

10 3. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons, which determine the mass of the atom.

10 4. The dense nucleus of an atom is in the center of an electron cloud, and this the electron cloud determines the size of the atom.

10 5. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but differing in neutron number.

6. Radioactive isotopes spontaneously decompose and are a source of radioactivity.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the states and properties of matter.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Elements are substances that contain only one kind of atom.

10 2. Elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number on the periodic table.

10 3. The periodic table organizes elements according to similar physical and chemical properties by groups(families), periods (series), and categories.

, periods, and categories.

Examples: Elements in the same group share similar chemistry. Periods indicate an energy level of the outermost electrons. Categories are regions such as metals, non-metals and transitions elements.

4. There are discrete energy levels for electrons in an atom.

Example: Color is a result of electrons changing from one energy level to another.

5. Valence electrons (those 5. Electrons farthest from the nucleus (or highest energy electrons) determine the chemistry of the atom.

10 6. Atoms interact with each other to transfer or share electrons to form compounds, through chemical bonding.

The nature of interaction among ionic compounds or between molecular compounds determines their physical properties.

Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 2A

8. Physical properties of gases follow kinetic models.
9. Through covalent bonding, carbon atoms can form chains, rings, and

Chemical bonds result when electrons are transferred or shared between atoms.

7. Compounds result from chemical bonds between ions or atoms.

Examples: Ionic compounds result from an attraction between ions of opposite charge (ionic bond). Molecular compounds result from atoms sharing electrons (covalent bond).

8. The interactions among ions or between molecules determines the physical properties of compounds.
9. Kinetic models are used to explain the physical properties of gases.
10. Carbon atoms can bond to each other in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of molecular structures, some of which are including relatively large molecules essential to life.

Benchmark 3: The student students will gain a basic concept of chemical reactions.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Understand that chemical reactions may often be identified by two or more of the following may often identify chemical reactions: physical property change, effervescence, mass change, precipitation, light emission, and heat exchange.
2. Explore chemical reactions that absorb energy from or release energy to the surroundings.
3. Distinguish different types of chemical reactions such as oxidation/reduction, synthesis, decomposition, single and double displacement. displacement, acid/base, and oxidation/reduction.
4. Establish the validity of 4. Demonstrate the Law of Conservation of Mass through stoichiometric relationships.
5. Appreciate the significance of chemical reactions in nature and those used everyday in society.
6. Recognize entropy (degree of disorder) as a driving force behind chemical reactions.
7. Assess the interrelationships between the rate of chemical reactions and variables such as temperature, concentration, catalysts, and reaction type.

Why does body temperature remain constant? What about cold-blooded animals?

STANDARD 2B: PHYSICAL SCIENCE –

STANDARD 2B: PHYSICS

Benchmark 1: The students will understand the relationship between motion motions and forces.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The motion of an object can be described in terms of its displacement (position), velocity and acceleration.

10 2. Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied.

Example Examples: When no net force acts, the system object either doesn’t move or moves with constant speed in a straight line. When a net force acts, the acceleration of the system is nonzero. For a given force, the magnitude of the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the system. The direction of acceleration upon an object, the object will change its motion. The magnitude of the change in motion is given by the relationship F = ma, regardless of the type of force.

3. Whenever a system applies force to an object, that object applies a related force to the system that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Examples: The change in an object’s motion (acceleration) is in the direction of the force. net applied force.

3. All forces are manifestations of one of the four fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces.*

Example: Gravitation is a 4. Gravitation is a relatively weak, attractive force that acts upon and between any two masses.

The electric force is a strong force that acts upon and between any two objects that possess a net electrical charge and may be either attractive or repulsive. The strong and weak nuclear forces are important in understanding the nucleus. 5. Electric force is the attraction or repulsion that exists between two charged particles. Its magnitude is vastly greater than that due to gravity.

Recent research has demonstrated that the electrical and weak nuclear forces are variations of a more inclusive force that has been named the electroweak force.

10 4 10 6. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force.

Example: Moving electrical charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electrical forces.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the conservation of mass and energy, and that the overall disorder of the universe is increased during every chemical and physical change.increases with time.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The energy of the universe is constant.

Examples: Physicists view matter as equivalent to energy. Matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but they can be interchanged.

*Note: The strong and weak nuclear forces are mentioned for completeness only and no in-depth student understanding of them is expected. 10 2.Energy may be classified as kinetic, potential or energy within a field.

10 2. Energy comes is different forms. The two main classifications are kinetic and potential.

Example: Kinetic energy is the result of motion while potential Examples: Kinetic energy deals with the motion of objects. Potential energy results from position or is the energy contained by a field. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by electromagnetic radiation, and in other ways. objects’ relative configuration. Electromagnetic radiation is an example of energy contained within a field. These energies are interchangeable: kinetic to potential, potential to kinetic, potential to field, etc.

3. Heat results from the random motion of particles. 3. Heat is the transfer of energy from objects at higher temperature to objects at lower temperature.

Example Examples: The internal energy of substances consists in part of movement of atoms, molecules, and ions. Temperature is a measure of the average magnitude of this movement. Heat is the net movement an exchange of internal energy from one material to another between systems.

4. The universe tends to become less organized and more disordered with time with every chemical and physical change.

Example: A logical outcome of this is that the energy of the universe will tend toward a more uniform distribution.

Benchmark 3: The students will understand the basic interactions of matter and energy.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Waves can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
2. Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated.

Example: Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.

3. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular unique, discrete amounts.

Example: Atoms and molecules can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to specific amounts of energy. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance and form the basis for several forms of spectroscopy.

10 4. Electrons flow easily in conductors (such as metals) whereas. There is much more resistance to electron flow in insulators (such as glass) they hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior.

Example: At low temperatures, some materials become superconductors and offer little or no resistance to the flow of electrons.

5. There are different forms of energy that change from one form to another.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of their activities in grades 9-12 will allow, all students to will develop an understanding of the structure and function of the cell, the cell, molecular basis of inheritanceheredity, biological evolution, interdependence and behavior of living things; of organisms, matter, energy, and organization of in living systems and uses of matter, and the behavior of organisms.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of the cell.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

10 1. Cells are composed of a variety of specialized structures that carry out specific functions.

Example Examples: Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside environment and controls flow of materials into and out of the cell. Specialized bodies, including organelles, serve specific life functions of the cell. Proteins embedded in the membrane help carry out specific life processes. In eukaryotes, similar membranes and their associated proteins help to compartmentalize and isolate the various chemical environments of the cell into organelles. Organelles are specialized to carry out specific life functions for the cell such as protein synthesis, protein processing and packaging, energy transformation, communication, etc.

10 2. Most cell functions involve specific chemical reactions.

Example: Food molecules taken into cells provide the chemicals needed to synthesize other molecules. Both Enzymes catalyze both breakdown and synthesis in the cell are catalyzed by enzymes.. In eukaryotes these reactions take place in membrane-bound organelles.

10 3. Cells function and replicate as a result of information stored in DNA and RNA molecules.

Example: Cell functions are regulated by proteins Proteins and gene expression regulate cell functions. This regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell division.

10 4. Some plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are the sites of photosynthesis.

Example: The process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems. The cell is the basic unit of function for living things.

5. Cells can differentiate, thereby enabling complex multicellular organisms to form.

Example: In development of most multicellular organisms, a fertilized cell forms an embryo that differentiates into an adult. Differentiation is regulated through expression of different genes and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of chromosomes, genes, and the molecular basis of heredity.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Mendelian genetics, which focuses on single gene traits, can explain many patterns of inheritance. However, the inheritance patterns of other traits are best explained as polygenic, which is the interaction of several genes. Hereditary information is contained in genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. Each gene carries a single unit of information. An inherited trait of an individual can be determined by one or by many genes, and a single gene can influence more than one trait.

Example Examples: Alleles, which are different forms of a gene, may be dominant, recessive, co-dominant, etc. The expression of traits is determined by a complex interaction of genes, developmental history, and the environment.

10 2. Experiments have shown that all known living organisms contain DNA or RNAas RNA as their genetic material.

Example Examples: Frederick Griffith and Avery’s work with bacteria demonstrated DNA changed properties of cells.

Beadle and Tatum’s work provided a mechanism for gene action and a link to modern molecular genetics.

Hershey and Chase’s work demonstrated that viral DNA contained the genetic code for new virus production in bacterial cells.

10 3. DNA specifies provides the instructions that specify the characteristics of most organisms.

Example Examples: Nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil) make up DNA and RNA molecules.

Sequences of nucleotides that either determine or contribute to a genetic trait are called genes.

DNA is replicated by using a template process that usually results in identical copies.

DNA is packaged in chromosomes during cell replication.

4 6. Organisms usually have a characteristic numbers of chromosomes; one pair of these may determine the gender sex of individuals.

Example: Most cells in humans contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair contains the XX for female or XY for male.

Gametes (sex cells) carry the genetic information to the next generation.

Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair.

Gametes unite.

5 7. Gametes carry the genetic information to the next generation.

Example Examples: Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair.

Gametes unite to form a new individual in most organisms.

Many possible combinations of genes explain features of heredity such as how traits can be hidden for several generations.

6 8. Mutations occur in DNA at very low rates.

Example Examples: Some changes make no difference to the organism or to future generations. Phenotypic Most phenotypic changes are can be harmful; a few some mutations enable organisms to survive changes in their environment. Only Some favorable mutations in the germ cells are passed on to offspring.

Only mutations in the germ cells are passed on to offspring and therefore can bring about beneficial or harmful changes in future generations.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand⁽¹⁾ major concepts of biological evolution.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. That the theory of evolution is both the history of descent with modification of different lineages of organisms from common ancestors and the ongoing adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes (modified from Futuyma, 1998).

 

 

10 2. That biologists use evolution theory to explain the earth’s present day biodiversity-the number, variety, and variability of organisms.

Example: Patterns of diversification and extinction of organisms are documented in the fossil record. The fossil record provides evidence of simple, bacteria-like life as far back as 3.8+ billion years ago. Natural selection, and other processes, can cause populations to change from one generation to the next. A single population can separate into two or more independent populations. Over time, these populations can also become very different from each other. If the isolation continues, the genetic separation may become irreversible. This process is called specification. Populations and entire lineages can go extinct. One effect of extinction is to increase the apparent differences between populations. As intermediate populations go extinct, the surviving lineages can become more distinct from one another.

 

 

3. That biologists 7. Biologists recognize that the primary mechanisms of genotypic change evolution are natural selection and random genetic drift.

Example: Natural selection includes the following concepts: 1) heritable Heritable variation exists in every species; 2) some heritable traits are more advantageous to reproduction and/or survival than are others; 3) there is a finite supply of resources required for life; not all progeny survive; 4) individuals with advantageous traits generally survive to reproduce; 5) the advantageous heritable traits increase in the population through time.

10 4. The sources and value of variation.

Examples: Variation of organisms within and among species increases the likelihood that some members will survive under changed environmental conditions. New heritable traits primarily result from new combinations of genes and secondarily from mutations or changes in the reproductive cells; changes in other cells of a sexual organism are not passed to the next generation.

5. That evolution by natural selection is a broad, unifying theoretical framework in biology.

Examples: Evolution provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable insights, especially in agriculture and medicine. The common ancestry of living things allows them to be classified into a hierarchy of groups; these classifications or family trees follow rules of nomenclature; scientific names have unique definitions and value. Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record that correlates with geochemical (e.g., radioisotope) dating results. The distribution of fossil and modern organisms is related to geological and ecological changes (i.e. plate tectonics, migration).

Benchmark 4 Benchmark 3: Students will understand the interdependence of organisms and their interaction with the physical environment.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Matter cycles Atoms and molecules on the earth cycle among the biotic living and abiotic nonliving components of the environment biosphere.

Example: The chemical elements, including all the essential elements of to life, circulate in the environment biosphere in characteristic paths known as biogeochemical cycles (e.g[e.g., nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, etc. cycles).].

Twelfth Grade – Continued 10 2. Energy flows through ecosystems.

10 2. Ecosystems have energy flowing through them.

Example Examples: Organisms, ecosystems, and the biosphere possess thermodynamic characteristics that exhibit a high state of internal order(low entropy).

Radiant energy that enters the Earth’s earth’s surface is balanced by the energy that leaves the Earth’s earth’s surface.

Transfer of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem is called the food chain; at each transfer as much as 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.

10 3. Ecosystems have cooperating and competing organisms in them. Organisms cooperate and compete in ecosystems.

Example: The stable community in ecological succession is the climax community. The climax community is self-perpetuating because it is in equilibrium within itself and with the physical habitat.

 Example: The interrelationships and interdependence of organisms may generate stable ecosystems.

10 4. Limited space and resources determine the size of populations. This tension impacts how organisms interact.

10 4. Living organisms have the capacity to produce populations of infinite size but environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension has profound effects on the interactions among organisms.

Example: The presence and success of an organism, or a group of organisms, depends upon a large number of environmental factors.

Any factor that approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance is limiting.

10 5. Ecosystems are impacted by the human beings which live within them.

10 5.Human beings live within and impact ecosystems.

Example: Humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Some examples of ecosystem modification are pollution, harvesting, agriculture, and construction.Human modifications of habitats through direct harvesting, pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors affect ecosystem stability.

Benchmark 5: Students should  will develop an understanding of matter, energy, and organization in living systems.

Indicators: The students will develop an understanding of:

10 1. Continual energy inputs are necessary to maintain living systems. Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain their chemical and physical organization.

Example: All matter moves toward increased disorder. Examples: All matter tends toward more disorganized states. With death, and the cessation of energy intake, living systems rapidly disintegrate.

Example: Organisms decompose upon death.

10 2.The sun is the primary source of energy for life through the process of photosynthesis.

10 2. Energy is harvested from the sunlight through photosynthesis.

Example: Plants use light to form covalent chemical bonds in carbon-containing molecules. These molecules can be combined to produce larger molecules, including DNA, proteins,

Examples: Plants capture energy by absorbing light and using it to form simple sugars. The energy in these sugar molecules can be used to assemble larger molecules with biological activity, including proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and fats. Living things use the energy stored in the bonds of these atoms. These molecules serve as sources of energy for life processes.

10 3. Energy is contained in chemical bonds which is released in

10 3. Food molecules contain energy. This energy is made available by cellular respiration.

Example: Energy released through cellular respiration is used Examples: Energy is released when the bonds of food molecules are broken and new compounds with lower energy bonds are formed. Cells usually use this energy to regenerate ATP, the molecule primarily utilized for energy transfer within the cell. involved in cell metabolism.

4. The structure and function of an organism serves to acquire, transform, transport, release, and eliminate the matter and energy used to sustain the organism.

10 5. The availability of matter and energy determines the distribution and abundance of organisms in ecosystems. and populations in ecosystems are limited by the availability of matter and energy, and the ability of the ecosystem to recycle materials.

6. Matter 6. As matter and energy flow through living things and their different levels of organization of living systems-cells, organs, organisms, communities-and between living systems and the physical environment producing different chemical compounds. This, chemical elements are recombined in different ways. Each recombination results in the storage of some energy and the release a dissipation of some energy into the environment as heat. Matter is recycled; energy is not.

Benchmark 5 6: Students will understand the behavior of animals.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Animals have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli.

Example Examples: Responses to external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism’s organism’s own species and others, as well as environmental changes. These responses can be innate and/or learned.

Animals often live in unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with uncertainty and change.

2. Most multicellular animals have nervous systems that underlie behavior.

Example Examples: Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.

3. Like other aspects of an organism’s biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.

Examples: Behaviors are often adaptive when viewed in terms of survival and reproductive success. Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Benchmark 6 Benchmark 7: Students will demonstrate an understanding of structure, function, and diversity of organisms.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of microbiological agents, including prions, viruses, bacteria, and protists.

Example: Viruses vary from bacteria; because of these differences Examples: Viruses are particles that cause infections. They are composed of genomes encased in a protein shell. They can only reproduce in a host organism. Because of these properties, vaccines are effective for viral infections but antibiotics are not.

Bacteria are a very diverse group of organisms that account for much of this planet’s biomass and cycling of materials. They are prokaryotes. Medially, several infectious diseases (e.g. strep throat, staph infections, cholera, syphilis, food poisoning, etc.) are caused by bacteria. Protists are unicellular vary from eukaryotes; because of these differences, bacteria are important decomposers and unique disease agents and some ancient forms are in a separate kingdom or domain.

Protists are unspecialized eukaryotes whose ancestors gave rise to other major kingdoms; some are disease agents (e.g. malaria, amoebic dysentery) and may require an animal vector.

Understanding of these basic groups underlies effective sanitation and hygiene.

2. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of fungi.

Example: Fungi are vital decomposers and important commercial and medical agents. have special symbiotic relationships with plants. Fungi are also important commercially and as the original source of antibiotics. Fungi can also cause disease (e.g. ringworm, athlete’s foot, etc.).

10 3. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and human relationships of plants.

Example Examples: Plant structures vary and this variation is important in understanding the function of plants in farming, pharmaceutical products, etc.

Photosynthesis is the basis for nearly all food chains and our food production.

Example: Understanding biology of plants underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

10 4. The basic biology, diversity, anatomy, ecology and medical effects of major animal groups.

Example: Animals vary; this variation is important in understanding the function of animals in farming, medical research, etc.

Example: Understanding the biology of animals underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

5. Humans as complex, soft machines that require many systems to operate properly.

Example Examples: Organ systems have specific structures and functions; they interact with each other.

Infections, developmental problems, trauma and aging result in specific diseases and disorders.

10 6. The structures and processes of development and reproduction.

Example Examples: Reproduction is essential to all ongoing life and is accomplished with wide variation in life cycles and anatomy.

Understanding of basic mechanisms, of reproduction and development, as well as changes of aging, is critical to leading a healthy life, parenting, and making societal decisions.

Environmental factors (e.g. radiation, chemicals) can cause both inherited gene mutations and that directly alter development ; changes or cellular repair mechanisms, leading to the development of various cancers. Changes to non-reproductive cell lines are not passed to the next generation.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of their activities in grades 9-12 will allow all, students to will develop an understanding of the Earth system’s energy flow, actions and interactions of the Earth’s subsystems, the origin and evolution of the Earth system, and the origin and evolution energy in the earth system, geochemical cycles, the formation and organization of the earth system, and the organization and development of the universe.

Benchmark 1: Students should will develop an understanding of the sources of energy that power the dynamic Earth earth system.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Essentially all energy on Earth traces ultimately to the sun and radioactivity in the Earth’s interior. All energy on earth originates with the sun, is generated by radioactive decay in the earth’s interior, or is left over from the earth’s formation.

10 2. Convection circulation in the mantle is driven by the outward transfer of the Earth’s earth’s internal heat.

10 3. Movable continental and oceanic plates make up the Earth’s earth’s surface; the hot, convecting mantle is the energy source for plate movement.

10 4. Energy from the sun heats the oceans and the atmosphere, and affects oceanic and atmospheric circulation.

5. Energy flow determines global climate and, in turn, is influenced by geographic features, cloud cover, and the Earth’s earth’s rotation.

Benchmark 2: Students should will develop an understanding of the actions and the interactions of the Earth’s earth’s subsystems: the lithosphere geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The systems at the Earth’s earth’s surface are powered principally, by the sun and contain an essentially fixed amount of each stable chemical atom or element.

10 2. The processes of the carbon, rock, and water cycles.

10 3. Water, glaciers, winds, waves, and gravity as weathering and erosion agents.

10 4. Earth’s Earth’s motions and seasons.

5. The composition and structure of Earth’s earth’s atmosphere.

10 6. Severe storms and safety precautions.

10 7. Basic weather forecasting, weather maps, fronts, and pressure systems.

Benchmark 3. Students will understand the origin and evolution of the dynamic earth system. understand the history of the earth.

1. The geologic table is a listing of the common fossils found in various rock layers.

Example: Research all published data on the fossils present in the layers of the Grand Canyon.

2. The different methods of evaluating fossils, radioactive decay and the formation of rock sequences and how they are used to estimate the time rocks were formed.

Example: Investigate how rocks and fossils are dated. Identify assumptions used in radioactive decay methods of dating. Compare and evaluate data obtained on ages from such places as Mount St. Helens and the meteorite named Allende.

3. Earth changes as recent (observed within human lifetimes), such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and older changes, such as mountain building and plate tectonics.
4. Formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and minerals.

Example: Examine recent sedimentology experiments. Students could design and conduct experiments that show how layers are formed.

Benchmark 4. Students should develop an understanding of the universe. The origin of the universe remains one of the greatest questions in science. Studies of data regarding fossils, geologic tables, cosmological information are encouraged. But standards regarding origins are not mandated. 

Indicators: The students will understand:

The structure of the universe.

Example: Galaxies are found in clusters and the clusters of galaxies are grouped together into super clusters.

10 2. General features of solar systems, planets, moons, comets, asteroids, and meteoroids.

3. General methods of and importance of the exploration of space.

Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 5

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to

10 1. The geologic time scale and how it relates to the history of the earth.

2. Rock sequences, fossils and radioactive decay and how they are used to estimate the time rocks are formed.

10 3. Earth changes as short term (during a human’s lifetime) such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and as long term (over a geological time scale) such as mountain building and plate movements.

4. The dramatic changes in the earth’s atmosphere (i.e. introduction of O₂) which were affected by the emergence of life on earth.

10 5. Formation of minerals and rocks by way of the rock cycle.

Benchmark 4. As a result of activities in grades 9-12, students will develop an understanding of how science relates to technology and the possibilities the organization of the universe and its development.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Formation of the universe.

Example: The sun is an ordinary star. It appears that many stars have planets orbiting them. Our galaxy (The Milky Way) contains about 100 billion stars. Galaxies are a level of organization of the Universe. There are at least 100 billion galaxies in the observable Universe. Galaxies are organized into large superclusters with large voids between them.

10 2. Expansion of the Universe from a hot dense early state.

Example: By studying the light emitted from distant galaxies, it has been found that they are moving apart from one another. Cosmological understanding, including the Big Bang theory, is based on this expansion.

3. Organization and development of stars, solar systems, and planets.

Examples: Nebulae from which stars and planets form are mostly hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements were and continue to be made by the nuclear fusion process. The sun is a second-generation star which along with its planets, were formed billions of years after the Big Bang.

4. General methods of and importance of the exploration of our solar system and space.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop understandings about science and technology and abilities of technological design.

Benchmark 1: Students should will develop an understanding of how understandings about science relates to and technology.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Creativity, imagination, and a broad knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.
2. Science and technology are pursued for different purposes.

Example Examples: Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world.

Applied science or technology is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems.

3. Different scientific Scientists in different disciplines ask different questions, use different investigative methods to gather methods of investigation, and accept different types of evidence to support their conclusions explanations.
4. Science advances new technologies. New technologies open new areas for scientific inquiry.
5. Technological knowledge is often not made public because of the financial and military potential of the idea or invention. Scientific knowledge is made public through presentations at professional meetings and publications in scientific journals. Scientific knowledge is usually presented at scientific meetings or in journals. Sometimes knowledge is not made public for economic or military reasons.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences As a result of their activities in grades 9-12 will allow, all students to will develop an understanding of personal and community health, population growth, natural resources and the environment, environmental quality, natural and human-induced hazards, and science and technology in human local, national and global settings.

Benchmark 1: Students should will develop an understanding of the overall functioning of human systems and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Hazards and the potential for accidents exist for all human beings.
2. Many The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the pathogenic organism, determine the severity of disease symptoms.disease-producing organism.

Example: A number of diseases are preventable, controllable, or curable. Diseases are either communicable (arising from viruses, bacteria, or other causative agents) or non-communicable (resulting from specific body dysfunctions). Examples: Many diseases can be prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, result from specific body dysfunctions and are not communicable.

3. Informed personal choices concerning fitness and health involve understanding of chemistry and biology.
4. Personal nutritional balance is determined by eating patterns and food choices. Selection of foods and eating patterns determine nutritional balance.
5. Sexuality is a serious component of being human and it demands strong personal reflection in light of the life-long effects on students. 5. Sexuality is basic to healthy human development.
6. Intelligent use of chemical products relates directly to an understanding of chemistry.

Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of population growth.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

10 1. Rate of change in populations is determined by the combined effects of birth and death, and emigration and immigration.

Example Examples: Populations can increase through exponential growth.

Population growth changes resource use and environmental conditions.

2. A variety of factors influence birth rates and fertility rates.

10 3. Populations can reach limits to growth.

Examples: Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that can be sustained in a given environment. Natural resources limit the capacity of ecosystems to sustain populations.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand that human populations use natural resources and influence environmental quality.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Natural resources from the lithosphere and ecosystems have been and will continue to be used to sustain human populations.

Example Examples: These processes of ecosystems include maintenance of the atmosphere, generation of soils, control of the hydrologic cycle, and recycling of nutrients.

Humans are altering many of these processes, and the changes may be detrimental to ecosystem function.

2. The Earth’s earth does not have infinite resources are finite.

Example: Increasing human consumption places stress on most renewable resources and depletes non-renewable nonrenewable resources.

3. Materials from human activities affect both physical and chemical cycles of the Earth earth.

Example: Natural systems can reuse waste, but that capacity is limited.

4. Humans use many natural systems as resources.

Benchmark 4: Students will understand the effect of natural and human-influenced hazards.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

1. Natural processes of Earth earth may be hazardous for humans.

Example Examples: Humans live at the interface between two dynamically changing systems, the atmosphere and the Earth’s earth’s crust. The vulnerability of societies to disruption by natural processes has increased. Natural hazards include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and severe weather. Examples of slow, progressive changes are stream channel position, sedimentation, continual erosion, wasting of soil and landscapes.

2. There is a need to assess access potential risk and danger from natural and human –induced hazards.

Example: Examples: Human –initiated changes in the environment bring benefits as well as risks to society.

Various changes have costs and benefits.

Environmental ethics have a role in the decision making process.-making process.

Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 6

3. Human activities can increase potential hazards as well as decrease them.

Benchmark 5: Students should will develop an understanding of the relationship between science, technology, and society.

Indicators: The students should will understand that:

1. Science and technology strongly influence modern society and can also explain what might happen. Human decisions determine how science and technology are applied. are essential components of modern society. Science and technology indicate what can happen, not what should happen. The latter involves human decisions about the use of knowledge.
2. Before discussing the economic, political, and ethical perspectives

2.Understanding basic concepts and principles of science and technology should precede active debate about the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of various challenges related to-related issues, participants should gain a basic understanding of the underlying scientific knowledge.

3. Social concerns and financing can determine progress in science and technology.
4. Progress in science and technology can be affected by social issues and challenges.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences As a result of activities in grades 9-12 will allow, all students to will develop an understanding of science as a human pursuit, endeavor, the characteristics nature of scientific knowledge, and the history of science historical perspectives.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding that science is a human pursuit endeavor.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of science as both vocation and avocation.
2. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods and norms of honesty.
3. Recognize the universality of basic science concepts and the influence of personal and cultural beliefs that imbed embed science in society.
4. Recognize that society helps create the ways of thinking (mindsets) required for scientific advances, both toward training scientists and the education of a populace to utilize benefits of science (e.g., standards of hygiene, attitudes toward forces of nature, etc.).
5. Recognize society’s role in supporting topics of research and determining institutions where research is conducted.

Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the characteristics nature of scientific knowledge.

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge.

Example Examples: Scientific knowledge is generally empirically based, consistent with reality, predictive, logical, and is skeptical.

Scientific knowledge is subject to experimental or observational confirmation.

Scientific knowledge is built on past understanding and can be refined and added to. augmented.

2. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods, falsification and norms of honesty.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand the history of science from historical perspectives.

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the history of science.

Example Examples: Modern science has been a successful enterprise of the last two centuries, contributing to dramatic improvements in the human condition.

Science progresses by incremental advances of scientists or teams of scientists. Some advances that are fundamental and Example: Some concepts have long-lasting effects and include: Copernican revolution, Newtonian physics, relativity, geological time scale, plate tectonics, atomic theory, nuclear physics, theory of biological evolution, germ theory, industrial revolution, molecular biology, quantum theory, medical and health technology.

Appendices

Appendix 1 – Glossary

Appendix 2 – Diagram Explanation of the Science Standards

Appendix 3 – Scientific Thinking Processes

Appendix 4 – Classical Process Skills

Appendix 5 – Bibliography 1

Appendix 1 GLOSSARY

Terms Concerning the Concepts of Standards

Benchmark: A focused statement of what students should know and be able to do in a subject at specified grade levels.

Curriculum: A particular way that content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in the Kansas Science Education Standards can be organized and presented in many ways through different curricula. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards do not constitute a state curriculum. However, a specific science curriculum chosen by a school district will be consistent with these standards only if it is consistent with the premises upon which these standards are based (e.g., science for all, equity, developmental appropriateness).

Equity: Within the context of these standards, equity means that these standards apply to all students, regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.

Example (Clarifying): An illustration of the meaning or intent of an indicator.

Example (Instructional): An activity or specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator.

Indicator: A specific statement of what students should know or be able to do as a result of a daily lesson or unit of study and how they will demonstrate what they have learned.

Standard: A description of what students are expected to know and be able to do in a particular subject.

Terms Concerning the Science Content of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Believe: To have a firm conviction in the reality of something.

Entropy: A measure of the extent of disorder in a system.

Evolution-Biological: A scientific theory that accounts for present day similarity and diversity among living organisms and changes in non-living entities over time. With respect to living organisms, evolution has two major perspectives: The long-term perspective (macro-evolution) focuses on the branching of lineages; the short-term perspective (micro-evolution) centers on changes within lineages. In the long term, evolution is the descent with modification of different lineages from common ancestors. In the short term, evolution is the on-going adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes. Fact: In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed.

Falsification – a method for determining the validity of an hypothesis, theory or law. To be falsifiable a theory must be testable, by others, in such a way that, if it is false, the tests can show that it is false.

Evolution-Cosmological: With respect to non-living entities, evolution accounts for sequences of natural stages of development. Such sequences are a natural consequence of the characteristics of matter and energy. Stars, planets, solar systems, and galaxies are examples.

Repeatability is an inadequate criterion and is supplemented with falsification. The reason for falsifiability may not be intuitively obvious. It is fine to make statements like “this theory is backed by a great body of experiments and observations,” but often overlooked is the fact that such claims are meaningless. Experiments and observations do not verify theories, they must be evaluated by human reason to determine the degree of verification they provide.

Evolution-Macroevolution: Evolution above the species level. The evolution of higher taxa and the product of evolutionary novelties such as new structures (May, 1991). Macroevolution continues the genetic mechanisms of microevolution and adds new considerations of extinction, rate and manner of evolution, competition between evolving units, and other topics relevant to understanding larger scale evolution.

As a result of the weakness of repeatability as a sole criteria for the validity of scientific explanations, Karl Popper, the famous 20th Century British Philosopher of Science, and countless others, have insisted that, to be called a “test” of a theory, the test must be designed in such a way that, if the test fails, the theory can be considered false! This criterion is reasonable. How can you call an experiment a “test” of a theory if failure of the test has no meaning? In the United States, falsifiability in science can even be considered “the law of the land,” because of the decision of a Federal Judge (Overton) in a famous trial.

A concomitant criteria, as stated by Popper, Overton, and others, is that the theory itself must be “falsifiable,” i.e., it must be possible to design a test that will fail if the theory itself is false. This is a very difficult position to establish, but that is the nature of good science.

Unfortunately lost in all this discussion is what used to be taught in most science colleges: experimental design. The key here is that “testing” a theory and “falsification” are more associated with the attributes of the test and its interpretation than they are with the theory itself. Another point is that experimental design is critical to theory verification. Critical analysis of the weaknesses (known or potential) of experimental tests of hypotheses, is critical to any ability to make informed decisions based on science education. Therefore, sound science teaching must include the logic of experimental design and evaluation.

Evolution-Microevolution: The processes (mostly genetics) that operate at the population level: natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and others. These processes may produce speciation, the splitting off of new reproductively isolated species.

Gamete: A germ cell (egg or sperm) carrying half of the organism’s full set of chromosomes, especially a mature germ cell capable of participating in fertilization.

Genetic Drift: Changes in the gene content of a population owing to chance.

Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual, especially as distinguished from its physical appearance.

Hypothesis: A testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.

Incremental: Within the context of these standards, incremental means that scientists slowly and consistently add to the knowledge base of science by means of scientific work.

Inquiry: Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves many process skills. Conducting hands-on science activities does not guarantee inquiry, nor is reading about science incompatible with inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (K-4): Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. However, not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Inquiry in School Science (5-8): Full inquiry involves several parts: identification. Identification of questions that can be answered through scientific investigations; the. The design and conduct of a scientific investigation; use. Use of appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data; development. Development of descriptions, explanations, predictions and models using evidence; and thinking. Thinking critically and logically to make relationships between evidence and explanations. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (9-12): Full inquiry includes several components: identification. Identification of questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations; the. The design and conduct of scientific investigations; use. Use of technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communication; formulation. Formulation and revision of scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence; and recognition. Recognition and analysis of alternative explanations and models. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Law: A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances. Laws are frequently, but not always, mathematical formulations. Laws are descriptive, not prescriptive; laws are statements of observed behavior which is so regular that exceptions are not known. Nature does not follow laws; laws describe how Nature behaves.

Material: The elements, constituents, or substances of which something is composed or can be made.,

Operational Definition: The assignment of meaning to a concept or variable in which the activities or operations required to measure it are specified. Operational definitions also may specify the scientist’s activities in measuring or manipulating a variable.

Paradigm: A universally recognized theoretical framework in science that, for a time, provides a model for asking questions and seeking answers through science.

Phenotype: The appearance of an individual, including the biochemical traits expressed internally. The genotype may contain genes that are not expressed in the phenotype.

Pollution – the resulting conditions of something being made physically impure or unclean. In the biological world, one organism’s waste is food for another. It’s when an ecological imbalance occurs that you have pollution. Plants, animals and humans can all contribute to the pollution of our world.

Principle: Similar to a scientific law. A principle frequently, but not always, is a qualitative or prose descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances.

Properties: Descriptions of objects based directly on the senses (e.g., hard, soft, smooth) or through extended use of the senses (an atom contains a nucleus).

Qualitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in type or kind.

Quantitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in amount.

Science: The human activity of seeking logical natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. These explanations are based on observations, experiments, and logical arguments that adhere to strict empirical standards and a healthy skeptical perspective.

Science Literacy: The scientific knowledge and inquiry skills which enhance a person’s person’s ability to observe objects and events perceptively, reflect on them thoughtfully, and comprehend explanations offered for them.

Technology: A science-based activity in which humans start with initial conditions, then design, build, and implement an intervention that improves the world about us in terms of our original needs (e.g., eye glasses or contacts).

Theory: In science, an a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts observations, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses (e.g., atomic theory, evolutionary theory).

Understand: To possess a meaningful comprehension of a concept or process based on direct or related experiences. Understanding stands in contrast to memorization, where there is only awareness of a term but no grasp of meaning.

Appendix 2

This diagram illustrates the connections between science standards, how they relate to the unifying concepts, how they are connected with other subject areas, and how they are related to the real world. When teachers use the whole picture as they teach, they provide students with more opportunity to learn, understand, and see the relevance of science, thus promoting not only an informed electorate, but also students who are motivated to be lifelong learners.

Standards

Content standards in the life, physical, and earth/space sciences are often closely related. as are the other standards, and the connections need to be made by teachers to provide a better understanding of science. Inquiry as a standard is in the center of the diagram and shows that it is an integral part of all the others. Science is much more than a body of information, it is a process of discovery. Through the discovery process, students can learn the content of the standards and understand it.

Unifying Concepts

To help show the relationships between the standards, teachers use unifying concepts to provide the umbrella for the integration of science topics. These serve to unite the standards and allow students to grasp the concepts that exist across all of the content standards. Using unifying concepts, students see the linkages across the science areas, and recognize the big picture of science, rather that just one small isolated part.

Connections With Other Subject Areas

Science plays a significant role in other curricular areas as well. For example, students should be able to apply the same knowledge involved in solving an algebraic problem to balancing chemical equations. Students in a science lab could determine how a musical instrument creates its particular sounds. By applying their knowledge of physics, within the unifying concepts, students can solve such musical problems. While the same concepts apply to more than one subject area, education has not traditionally linked the various curricular areas.

Real World Applications

The most effective way to teach students about science is to make it relevant to them by showing that what they learn in the classroom has direct application to the world. For example, students at one Kansas school learned some of their most meaningful science lessons when they teamed with a local corporation. As a part of this school-business partnership, students were brought to the job site and were given the task of creating a specific machine component. Using information provided to them, and generating their own information, they designed, created, and produced the new machine component and demonstrated to company officials how the product worked.

Appendix 3

Scientific Thinking Process

Appendix 4 PROCESS SKILLS Classical Process Skills

(taken from the Kansas Curricular Standards in Science, 1995)

The processes of science are skills that are essential to developing knowledge,. concepts,. and applications across the curriculum. The processes are often referred to as the “hands–on““ approach to science and must be used throughout the program. Each of the terms implies active student participation and has been adapted from the following post-Sputnik science curricula: Elementary Science Study;, Science-A Process Approach;,Science Curriculum Improvement Study.

Observing: Using the senses to gather information about objects and events in the environment. This skill includes using scientific instruments to extend the range of the human senses and the ability to differentiate relevant from non-relevant events.

Classifying: A method for establishing order on collections of objects or events. Students use classification systems to identify objects or events, to show similarities, differences, and  inter-relationships. It is important to realize that all classification systems are subjective and may change as criteria change. The test for a good classification system is whether others can use it.

Measuring: A procedure for using instrument to determine the length, area, volume, mass, or other physical properties of an unknown quantity. It requires the proper use of instruments and the ability to calculate the measured results.

Using Numbers: This skill includes number sense, computation, estimation, spatial sense, and whole number operations.

Communicating: Transmitting the results of observations and experimental procedures to others through the use of such devices as graphs, charts, tables, written descriptions, telecommunications, oral presentations, etc. Communication is fundamental to science, because it is through the exchange of ideas and results of experiments that knowledge is validated by others.

Questioning: The formulation of original questions based on observations and experiences with an event in such a way that one can experiment to seek the answers.

Relating: In the sciences, information about relationships can be descriptive or experimental. Relationships are based on logical arguments that encompass all data. Hypothetical reasoning, deductive reasoning, coordinate graphing, the managing of variables, and the comparison of effects of one variable upon another contribute to understanding the “big”“big” ideas of science.

Inferring: An inference is a tentative explanation that is based on partial observations. Available data are gathered and a generalization is made based on the observed data. These judgments are never absolute and reflect what appears to be the most probable explanation at the time and are subject to change as new data are accumulated.

Predicting: Using previously observed information to make possible decisions about future events.

Formulating Hypotheses: Stating a probable outcome for some occurrence based on many observations and inferences. The validity of the hypothesis is determined from testing by one or more experiments.

Identifying and Controlling Variables: Determining which elements in a given investigation will vary or change and which ones will remain constant. Ideally, scientists will attempt to identify all the variables before an investigation is conducted. By manipulating one variable at a time they can determine how that variable will affect the outcome.

Collecting and Interpreting Data: The information collected in order to answer questions is referred to as data. Interpreting data includes using information to make inferences and predictions and then to form hypotheses. This includes developing skills in communicating statistical statements about the data in the form of mode, mean, median, range, and average deviation.

Experimenting: This process is the culmination of all the science process skills. Experimentation often begins with observations which lead to questions that need answers. The steps for proceeding may include formulating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, designing the procedure for conducting tests, implementing the test, collecting and interpreting the data and sometimes changing the hypothesis being tested.

Applying: The process of inventing, creating, problem solving, and determining probabilities are applications of using knowledge to discover further information.

Constructing Models: Developing physical or mental representations to explain an idea, object, or event. Models are usually developed in the basis of acceptable hypotheses.

Appendix 5

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061 (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy, New York: Oxford University Press.

American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061 (1990). Science for All Americans, New York Oxford University Press.

Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project (1996). NSTA Awareness Kit for the National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.-. Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project.

Lowery, L.F. (1989). The Biological Basis of Thinking and Learning, Berkeley, CA. Lawrence Hall of Science.

University of California-Berkeley.

Mayr, E. (1991). One Long Argument. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.

National Academy of Sciences (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Academy of Sciences (1998). Teaching About Evaluation and the Nature of Science. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Science Teachers Association (1996). Pathways to the Science Standards-High School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

National Science Teachers Association (1997). Pathways to the Science Standards-Elementary School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

National Science Teachers Association (1998). Pathways to the Science Standards-Middle School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

U.S. Department of Education (1997). Attaining Excellence: A Resource Kit for the Third International Science and Mathematics Study.

Washington, DC: U.S. Dept of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

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Understand: “Understand” does not mandate “belief.” While students may be required to understand some concepts that researchers use to conduct research and solve practical problems, they may accept or reject the scientific concepts presented. This applies particularly where students’ and/or parents’ religion is at odds with science. See Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy of Sciences, 1998, page 59.

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1. Understand: “Understand” does not mandate “belief.” While students may be required to understand some concepts that researchers use to conduct research and solve practical problems, they may accept or reject the scientific concepts presented. This applies particularly where students’ and/or parents’ religion is at odds with science. See Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy of Sciences, 1998, page 59.

NOTE: Shown below is a copy of a draft of Kansas Science Education Standards circulated by a Science Writing Team in December 2000. The copy was first generated with an optical character reader, then converted to WordPerfect format, then converted to html format, and finally WordPress format.  Formating, spelling, pagination and other features have not in all cases been transferred faithfully.  Accordingly,  IDnet does not attest to the absolute accuracy of the text or the description of the document.

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KANSAS SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

Draft of Science Writing Team – December, 2000

[TENTATIVE  – NOT OFFICIAL]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication
Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee……………………………………………
Introduction
Mission Statement
Vision Statement
Background Information
Acknowledgment of Prior Work
Nature of Science
Statement on Teaching With Tolerance and Respect
A Perspective on Changing Emphases
Table of Changing Emphases in the Nature of
Science Content and Changing Emphases to
Promote Inquiry
Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards
Standards
Benchmarks
Indicators
Examples
Keying the Standards to the Kansas Science
Assessment
Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards
Systems, Order, and Organization
Evidence, Models, and Explanation
Constancy, Change, and Measurement
Patterns of Cumulative Change
Form and Function
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
Overview of Science Standards K-4
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
Overview of Science Standards 5-8
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7 HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

BY The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
Overview of Science Standards 9-12
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Appendix 1: Glossary
Appendix 2: Diagram Explanation of the Science Standards
Appendix 3: Scientific Thinking Processes
Appendix 4: Classical Process Skills
Appendix 5 Bibliography………… I ……………..

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Dedication

The writing committee dedicates the Kansas Science Education Standards to all Kansas students. Our students arc the future of Kansas. With this document, we pass on the legacy of our own teachers, who helped us to know that as lifelong learners of science, we can live more productive, responsible, and fulfillment.

Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee

Stephen Angel, Chemist, Washburn University, Topeka, KS
Ramona Anshutz, Science Education Consultant, Pomona, KS
Ken Bingman, Biology Teacher, Shawnee Mission USD 512, Shawnee Mission, KS
Mary Blythe. K-5 Science Specialist, Kansas City USD 500, Kansas City, KS
Janeen Brown, Elementary Teacher, Wakeeney USD 208, Wakeeney, KS
Steve Case, Director, Kansas Collaborative Research Network, Lawrence, KS
Misty Gawith, Middle Level Teacher, Circle USD 375, Towanda. KS
Letha Gillespie, Chemistry and Physics Teacher, Augusta USD 402, Augusta. KS
Betty Holderread. Science Education Consultant, Newton, KS
Loren Lutes, Superintendent, Oskaloosa USD 341, Oskaloosa, KS and Committee Co-Chair
Naomi Nibbelink, Health Sciences Educational Consultant, Topeka, KS
Jay Nicholson, Biology, Chemistry, Physics Teacher, Rock Creek USD 323, Westmoreland, KS
Karen Peck, Elementary Teacher, Wichita Diocese Schools, Wichita, KS
Linda Pierce, Elementary Teacher, Circle USD 375, Towanda, KS
Barbara Prater, Middle School Teacher, Blue Valley USD 229, Overland Park, KS
Linda Proehl, Assistant Superintendent, Parsons USD 503, Parsons, KS
Greg Schell, Science Education Program Consultant, KSDE, Topeka, KS
John Richard Schrock, Biologist, Emporia State University, Emporia, KS
Twyla Sherman, Science Educator, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS
Ben Starburg, Biology Teacher, Chapman USD 473, Chapman, KS
John Staver, Science Educator, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS and Committee Co-Chair
Germaine Taggart, Science Educator, Fort Hays State University, Hays, KS
Sandy Tauer, K-1 2 Science and Mathematics Coordinator, Derby USD 260, Derby, KS
Patrick Wakeman, Biology Teacher, Tonganoxie USD 464, Tonganoxie, KS
Brad Williamson, Biology Teacher, Olathe USD 233, Olathe, KS
Carol Williamson, Pre K-12 Science Coordinator, Olathe USD 233, Olathe. KS

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KANSAS SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

INTRODUCTION

Mission Statement

The mission of science education in Kansas is to utilize science as a vehicle to prepare all students as lifelong learners who can use science to make reasoned decisions, contributing to their local, state, and international communities.

Vision Statement

All students, regardless of gender, cultural or ethnic background, future aspirations or interest and motivation in science, should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy.

(Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project, 1996, T-7)

The educational system must prepare the citizens of Kansas to meet the challenges of the 21st century. With this in mind, the intent for the Kansas Science Education Standards can be expressed in a single phrase: Science standards for all students. The phrase embodies both excellence and equity. These standards apply to all students, regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.

By emphasizing both excellence and equity, these standards also highlight the need to give students the opportunity to experience science to learn science. Students can achieve high levels of performance with:

• • access to skilled professional teachers;
  • adequate classroom time;
  • a rich array of learning material;
  • accommodating work spaces; and
  • the resources of the communities surrounding their schools.

Responsibility for providing this support falls on all those involved with the system of education in Kansas.

Inquiry is central to science learning. These standards call for more than “science as a process,” in which students learn discrete skills such as observing, inferring, and experimenting. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations, In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. They also experience first-hand the thrill and excitement of science. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge.

The importance of inquiry does not imply that all teachers should pursue a single approach to teaching science. Just as inquiry has many different facets, so do teachers need to use many different strategies to develop the understandings and abilities described here. These standards rest on the premise that science is an active process. Science is something that students and adults do, not something that is done to them.

The Kansas Science Education Standards:

• • Provide criteria that Kansas educators and stakeholders can use to judge whether particular actions will serve the vision of a scientifically literate society.
  • Bring coordination, consistency, and coherence to the improvement of science education.
  • Advocate that science education must be developmentally appropriate and reflect a systemic, progressive approach throughout the elementary, middle, and high school years.

These standards should not be viewed as a state curriculum nor as requiring a specific local curriculum. A curriculum is the way content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in these standards, can be organized and presented with many different emphases and perspectives in many different curricula.

Purpose of this Document

These standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples are designed to assist Kansas educators in selecting and developing local curricula, carrying out instruction, and assessing students’ progress. Also, they will serve as the foundation for the development of state assessments in science. Finally, these standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples represent high, yet reasonable, expectations for all students.

Students may need further support in and beyond the regular classroom to attain these expectations. Teachers, school administrators, parents, and other community members should be provided with the professional development and leadership resources necessary to enable them to help all students work toward meeting or exceeding these expectations.

Background Information

The original Kansas Curricular Standards for Science were drafted in 1992, approved by the Kansas State Board of Education in 1993, and up-dated in 1995. Although all of this work occurred prior to the release of the National Science Education Standards in 1996, the original Kansas standards reflect early work on the national standards. At the August, 1997 meeting of the Kansas State Board of Education, the Board directed that academic standards committees composed of stakeholders from throughout Kansas should be convened in each curriculum area defined by Kansas law (reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies).

The science committee was charged to:

1. 1. Bring greater clarity and specificity to what teachers should teach and students should learn at the various grade levels.
   2. Review current state curricular standards.
   3. Prioritize the standards to be assessed by the state assessments.
   4. Provide advice regarding assessment methodologies.

Acknowledgment of Prior Work

Carrying out this charge, the writing committee built upon and benefitted from a great deal of prior work done on a national level. Two principal expressions of a unified vision and content for science education exist. One is the National Science Education Standards published by the National Research Council, the second is Benchmarks for Science Literacy from Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. According to representatives of both groups, the vision and content overlap by at least 80%. These standards embrace the vision and content of the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and Benchmark’s for Science Literacy (Project 2061 AAAS. 1993). Therefore, the Kansas Science Education Standards are founded not only oil the research base but also on the work of over 18,000 scientists. science educators. teachers, school administrators and parents across the country, that produced national standards as the school district teams and thousands of individuals who contributed to the benchmarks. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards arc consistent with both expressions of a unified vision for science education. Moreover the National Science Teachers Association recently published elementary, middle, and high school editions of Pathways to the Science Standards. The pathways documents provide a framework for aligning The Kansas Science Education Standards with national standards. All of the above mentioned documents contain many resources and teaching applications for further development of the ideas presented in the Kansas Science Education Standards. Permission to use specific segments of text in the Kansas Science Education Standards has been requested from the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Science Teachers Association, and other sources of text and diagrams.

Nature of Science

Science is the human activity of seeking natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experiment, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are built on observations, hypotheses, theories. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, inferences. and tested hypotheses. Scientific explanations must meet certain criteria.

Scientific explanations arc consistent with experimental and/or observational data and testable v scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation. Scientific explanation must meet criteria that govern the repeatability of observations and experiments. The effect of these criteria is to insure that scientific explanations about the World are open to criticism and that they will be modified or abandoned in favor of new explanations if empirical evidence so warrants. Because all scientific explanations depend oil observational and experimental confirmation, all scientific knowledge is. in principle. subject to change as new evidence becomes available. The core theories of science have been subjected to a wide variety of confirmations and have a high degree of reliability within the limits to which they have been tested. In areas where data or understanding are incomplete, new data may lead to changes in current theories or resolve current conflicts. In situations where information is still fragmentary, it is normal for scientific ideas to be incomplete, but this is also where the opportunity for making advances may be greatest. Science has flourished in different regions during different time periods, and in history diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technological inventions. Changes in scientific knowledge usually occur as gradual modifications, but the scientific enterprise also experiences periods of rapid advancement. The daily work of science and technology results in incremental advances in our understanding of the world about us.

Teaching With Tolerance and Respect

Science studies natural phenomena by formulating explanations that can be tested against the natural world. Some scientific concepts and theories (e.g. blood transfusion, human sexuality, nervous system role in consciousness. cosmological and biological evolution, etc.) may conflict with the teachings of a student’s religious community or their cultural beliefs. A science teacher has the responsibility to improve students understanding of scientific processes, concepts, and theories. However, science should not be taught dogmatically. Compelling student belief is inconsistent with and in conflict with the goal of education.

A teacher is an important role model for demonstrating respect. sensitivity, and civility. Teachers should not ridicule, belittle or embarrass a student for expressing an alternative view or belief. In doing this, teachers display and demand tolerance and respect for the diverse ideas, skills, and experiences of all students. If a student should raise a question in a natural science class that the teacher determines to be outside the domain of science, the teacher should treat the question with respect. The teacher should explain why the question is outside the domain of natural science and encourage the student to discuss the question further with his or her family and other appropriate source.

Nothing in the Kansas Statutes Annotated or the Kansas State Board Regulations allows students (or their parents) to excuse class attendance based on disagreement with the curriculum, except as specified for 1) any activity which is contrary to the religious teachings of the child or for 2) human sexuality education. (See Kansas Statues Annotated 1111d and State Board Regulations 91-31-3:(g)(2).)

A Perspective on Changing Emphases

The central nature of inquiry in learning science reflects substantive changes-steps forward-from the previous Kansas Curricular Standards for Science, last updated in 1995. The Kansas Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system of Kansas education. These standards reflect the following changes in emphases, as shown in the chart below:

Changing Emphases in the Nature of Science Contentand Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry

Emphasize Less	Emphasize More
• Knowing only scientific facts and information	• Understanding scientific concepts and developing abilities of inquiry
• Covering many science topics	• Studying a few fundamental science concepts.
• Implementing inquiry as a set of isolated processes.	• Implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, abilities, learning ideas, and integrated processes.
• Activities that demonstrate a known science concept.	• Activities that generate, investigate, and analyze science questions.
• Investigation confined to one class period.	• Investigations over extended periods of time.
• Emphasis on individual process skills such as observation or inference taken out of context.	• Using multiple process skills such as manipulation, cognitive, and procedural skills in the context of inquiry.
• Getting an answer.	• Using evidence and strategies for developing or revising an explanation.
• Individuals and groups of students analyzing and synthesizing data without defending a conclusion.	• Groups of students often analyzing and synthesizing data and defending conclusions.
• Teachers providing answers to questions about science content.	• Students building and communicating scientific explanations.

To help readers grasp the extent of changing emphases presented in the chart immediately above, the writing committee has included two sections from the prior Kansas standards in the appendices. Readers can find the Science Process Skills defined in Appendix 4 and the Diagram Explanation for the Science Standards in Appendix 2. Regarding science process skills, these standards call for substantive change, for a decrease in emphasis on implementing inquiry as a set of isolated process skills, with a simultaneous increase on implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, ideas, and abilities to be learned. Close examination of the chart above reveals that science processes remain important, as they should. But, in these standards, students acquire proficiency in science processes within the context of learning to do scientific inquiry. This requires students to develop their abilities to think scientifically. To encourage a uniform understanding of what this means, the writing committee has also included a diagram on the Scientific Thinking Processes in Appendix 3.

Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Each standard in the main body of the document contains a series of benchmarks, which describe what students should know and be able to do at the end of a certain point in their education (e.g., grade 2, 4, 8, 1 0). Each benchmark contains a series of indicators, which identify what it means for students to meet a benchmark. Indicators are frequently followed by examples, which are specific, concrete ideas or illustrations of the standards writers’ intent.

Standards

There are seven standards for science. These standards are general statements of what students should know, understand, and be able to do in the natural sciences over the course of their K-12 education. The seven standards are interwoven ideas, not separate entities, thus. they should be taught as interwoven ideas, not as separate entities. These standards are clustered for grade levels K-2, 3-4, 5-8, and 6-12.

1. Science as Inquiry
2. Physical Science
3. Life Science
4. Earth and Space Science
5. Science and Technology
6. Science in Personal and Environmental Perspectives
7. History and Nature of Science

Benchmarks

These are specific statements of what students should know and be able to do at a specified point in their schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure students’ progress toward meeting a standard. In these standards, benchmarks are defined for grades 2,4, 8, and 10.

Indicators

These are statements of the knowledge or skills which students demonstrate in order to meet a benchmark, Indicators are critical to understanding the standards and benchmarks and are to be met by all students. The set of indicators listed under each benchmark is not listed in priority order, nor should the list be considered as all-inclusive. The list of indicators and examples should be considered as representative but not as comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Examples

Two kinds of examples are presented. An instructional example offers an activity or a specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator. A clarifying example provides an illustration of the mean or intent of an indicator. Like the indicators themselves, examples are considered to be representative but not comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Keying the Standards to the Kansas Science Assessment

Readers should notice that selected indicators beneath standards have a box containing a number immediately to the left of the number of the indicator. The presence of such an internally numbered box be-side an indicator means that the writing committee has designated this indicator for emphasis on the new Kansas Science Assessment, which will be developed to assess these standards. Thus, a box with the number “4” inside represents an indicator to be emphasized on the Grade 4 Kansas Science Assessment. Similarly, boxes with the numbers “T’ or “10” inside represent indicators to be emphasized on the Grade 7 and Grade 10 Kansas Science Assessments, respectively. None of the indicators designated by a boxed-10 will assume competency through the second semester of grade 10. Finally, readers should know that the number represents the first point at which a particular indicator will be assessed. The same indicator may also be included on later assessments.

Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards

Science is traditionally, a discipline-centered activity; however, broad, unifying concepts and processes exist which cut across the traditional disciplines of science. Five such concepts and processes have been embedded within and across the seven standards listed below. These broad unifying concepts and processes complement the analytic, more discipline-based perspectives presented in the other content standards. Moreover, they provide students with productive and insightful ways of thinking about integrating a range of basic ideas that explain the world about us, including what occurs naturally as well as what is built by humans through science and technology. The embedded unifying concepts and processes named and described below are a subset of the many unifying ideas in science and technology, These were selected from the National Science Education Standards because they provide connections between and among traditional scientific disciplines, arc fundamental and comprehensive, are understandable and usable by people who will implement science programs, and can be expressed and experienced in a developmentally appropriate manner during K-12 science education.

Systems, Order, and Organization: The world about us is complex, it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. Scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigations. The units of investigation can be referred to as systems, where a system is an organized group of related objects or components that form a whole. Systems are categorized as open, closed, or isolated, and can consist of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, numbers, transportation and education Systems have boundaries, components, resources, flow (input and output), and feedback. Order-the behavior of units of matter objects, organisms, or events in the universe – can be described statistically. Probability is the relative certainty (or uncertainty) that individuals can assign to selected events happening (or not happening) in a specified space or time. In science, reduction of uncertainty occurs through such processes as the development of knowledge about factors influencing objects, organisms, systems, or events; better and more observations; and better explanatory models. Types and levels of organization provide. useful ways of thinking about the world. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of organisms. Physical systems can be described at different levels of organization-such as fundamental particles, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organization-for example, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, and communities.

Evidence, Models, and Explanation: Evidence consists of observations and empirical data on which to base scientific explanations. Using evidence to understand interactions allows individuals to predict changes in naturally occurring systems and systems built by humans. Models are tentative schemes or structures that correspond to real objects, events, or classes of events, and have explanatory, and predictive power. Models help scientists and engineers understand how things work. Models take many forms, including physical objects, plans, mental constructs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations. Scientific explanations incorporate existing scientific knowledge and new evidence from observations, experiments, or models into internally consistent, logical statements. Different terms, such as hypothesis, model, law, principle, theory, and paradigm are used to describe various types of scientific explanations.

Constancy, Change, and Measurement: Although most things are in the process of becoming different-changing-some properties of objects and processes are characterized by constancy (e.g., speed of light, charge of an electron, total mass plus energy in the universe), Changes might occur, for example, in properties of materials, position of objects, motion, and form and function of systems. Interactions within and among systems result in change. Changes vary in rate, scale, and pattern, including trends and cycles. Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions. For example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states, Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible. Changes in systems can be quantified, and evidence for interactions and subsequent change and the formulation of scientific explanations are often clarified through quantitative distinctions-measurement. All measurements are approximations, and the accuracy and precision of measurement depend on equipment, technology, and technique used during observations. Mathematics is essential for accurately, measuring change. Different systems of measurement are used for different purposes.. Scientists usually use the metric system. An important part of measurement is knowing when to use which system. For example a meteorologist might use degrees Fahrenheit when reporting the weather to the public, but in writing scientific reports, the meteorologist would use degrees Celsius.

Patterns of Cumulative Change: Accumulated changes through time, sonic gradual and sonic sporadic, account for the present form and function of objects, organisms, and natural systems. The general idea is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. An example of cumulative change is the biological theory of evolution, which explains the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors. Additional examples are continental drift, which is part of plate tectonic theory, fossilization, and erosion. Patterns of cumulative change also help to describe the current structure of the universe.

Form and Function: Form and function are complementary aspects of objects. organisms, and systems. The form or shape of all object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function. Function frequently relies oil form. Understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Form and function can explain each other.

On the following page, K-12 overview of science content is presented within the seven standards. At the beginning of the 4th (p. Xx), 8th (p. xx), and 12th (p. xx) grade standards. the overview of science content for that section within the seven standards is connected to the unifying concepts and processes.

By The End Of SECOND GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

As a result of the activities in grades K-2, all students will experience science as full inquiry. In elementary grades, students begin to develop the physical and intellectual abilities of scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: All students will be involved in activities that will develop skills necessary to conduct scientific inquiries. These activities will involve asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. Not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify characteristics of objects.

Example: States characteristics of leaves, shells. water, and air.

4 2. Classify and arrange groups of objects by a variety of characteristics

Example: Group seeds by color. texture, size, group objects by whether they float or sink, group rocks by texture, color, and hardness.

4 3. Use appropriate materials and tools to collect information.

Example: Use magnifiers, balances, scales, thermometers. measuring cups, and spoons when engaged in investigations.

4. Ask and answer questions about objects, organisms. and events in their environment.

Example: Observe a variety of leaves or rocks and discuss how they arc alike and how they are different.

5. Describe an observation orally or pictorially.

Example: Draw pictures of plant growth on a daily basis-, note color, number of leaves.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

As a result of the activities in grades K-2, all students will be encouraged to explore the world by observing and manipulating common objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects. All students will have opportunities to compares describe, and sort objects.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using age appropriate tools and materials

Example: Compare size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects.

4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Compare objects made from wood, metal, and cloth.

4 3. Separate or sort a group of objects or materials by properties.

Example: Compare the shape, size, weight, and color of objects,

4 4. Compare solids and liquids.

Example: Compare the properties of water with -the. properties of ice.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

As a. result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will begin to develop an understanding of biological concepts.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of living things.

Through direct experiences, students will observe living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that living things need air, water, and food.

Example: What children need…what plants need…what animals need.

2. Observe life cycles of different living things.

Example: Observe butterflies, mealworms, plants, and humans

3. Observe living things in various environments.

Example: Observe classroom plants; take nature walks in your own area and various field trips; observe terrariums and aquariums.

4 4. Examine the characteristics of living things.

Example: Butterflies have wings. Plants may have leaves and roots. People have skin and hair,

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will be encouraged to observe closely the objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will describe properties of earth materials. Earth materials may include rock, soil, air, and water.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Observe earth materials.

Example: Describe and compare soils by color and texture, sort pebbles and rocks by size, shape, and color.

4 2. Describe where earth materials are found.

Example: Observe earth materials around the playground, on a field trip, or in their own yard.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and compare objects in the sky. The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Distinguish between marinade and natural objects in the sky.

Example: Compare birds to airplanes.

2. Recognize sun, moon, and stars.

Example: Observe day and night sky regularly.

4 3. Describe that the sun provides light and warmth.

Example: Feel heat from the sun on the face and skin. Observe shadows.

Benchmark 3: All students will describe changes in weather. Weather includes snow, rain, sleet, wind, and violent storms.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe changes in the weather from day to day.

Example: Draw pictures.

2. Record weather changes daily.

Example: Use weather charts, calendars, and logs to record daily weather.

3. Discuss weather safety procedures.

Examples: Practice tornado drill procedures; talk about the dangers of lightning and flooding.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will have a variety of educational experiences that involve science and technology.

Benchmark 1: All students will use technology to learn about the world around them. Students will use software and other technological resources to discover the world around them.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Explore the way things work.

Example: Observe the inner workings of non-working toys, clocks, telephones, toasters, music boxes.

4 2. Experience science through technology.

Example: Use science software programs, balances, thermometers, hand lenses, and bug viewers.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will have a variety of experiences that provide understandings for various science-related personal and environmental challenges. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will demonstrate responsibility for their own health. Health encompasses safety, personal hygiene, exercise, and nutrition.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discuss that safety and security are basic human needs.

Examples: Discuss the need to obey traffic signals, the use of crosswalks, and the danger of talking to strangers.

2. Engage in personal care.

Examples: Practice washing hands and brushing teeth. Discuss appropriate types of clothing to wear.

Discuss personal hygiene.

3. Discuss healthy foods.

Example: Cut out pictures of foods and sort into healthy and not healthy groups.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will experience scientific inquiry and learn about people from history. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will know they practice science.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Be involved in explorations that make them wonder and know that they are practicing science.

Examples: Observe what happens when you place a banana or an orange (with and without the skin), or a crayon in water. Observe what happens when you hold an M&M, a chocolate chip, or a raisin in your hand. Note the changes. Observe what happens when you rub your hands together very fast.

2. Use technology to learn about people in science.

Examples: Read short stories, and view films or videos. Invite parents who are involved in science as guest speakers.

By The End Of FOURTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards K-4

Systems, Order & Organization Evidence, Models and Explanations

Change, Constancy, & Measurement Patterns of Cumulative Change

Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry; understanding about and participating in scientific inquiry

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Properties of objects and materials Position and motion of objects

Electricity and magnetism Sound

LIFE SCIENCE

Organisms and their environments

Life cycles of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Properties of Earth materials

Objects in the sky

Changes in Earth and sky

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Problem solving skills Apply understandings of science and

Abilities to distinguish between natural technology

and human-made objects

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Personal health Changes in surroundings

HISTORY & NATURE of SCIENCE

People practice science

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

As a result of the activities in grades 3-4, all students will experience science as inquiry. Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and sharing results with others.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop the skills necessary to do full inquiry. Inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and sharing the results with others. Not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequences of these stages be followed. Students can design investigations to explore and observe changes in variables.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Ask questions that they can answer by investigating.

Example: Will the size of the opening on a container change the rate of evaporation of liquids? How much water will a sponge hold?

4 2. Plan and conduct a simple investigation.

Example: Design a test of the wet strength of paper towels; experiment with plant growth; experiment to find ways to prevent soil erosion.

4 3. Employ appropriate equipment and tools to gather data.

Example: Use a balance to find the mass of the wet paper towel, use meter sticks to measure the flight distance of a paper air plane; use the same size containers to compare evaporation rates of different liquids.

4 4. Begin developing the abilities to communicate, critique, and analyze their own investigations and interpret the work of other students.

Example: Describe investigations with pictures, written language, oral presentations.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

As a result of the activities in grades 3-4, students will be given opportunities to increase their understanding of the properties of objects and materials that they encounter on a daily basis. Students will compare, describe, and sort these materials by properties.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects. Through observation, manipulation, and classification of common objects, children reflect on the similarities and differences of the objects.

Indicators: The student will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using appropriate tools.

Example: Observe and record the size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects using balances, thermometers, and other measurement tools.

4 2. Classify objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Group a set of objects by the materials from which they are made.

4 3. Describe objects by more than one property.

Example: Observe that an object could be hard, round, and rough. Sort objects by two or more properties.

4 4. Observe and record how one object reacts with another object or substance.

Example: Mix baking soda and vinegar and record observations.

4 5. Recognize and describe the differences between solids and liquids.

Example: Observe differences between a stick of butter, a chocolate bar, or ice as a solid and melted as a liquid. Observe that solids have a shape of their own and liquids take the shape of their container, observe differences between an inflated and a deflated balloon.

Benchmark 2: All students will describe the movement of objects. Students begin to observe the position and movement of objects when they manipulate objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, dropping, and rolling them.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Move objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, spinning, dropping, and rolling, and describe the motion. Observe that a force (a push or a pull) is applied to make objects move.

Example: Spin or roll a variety of objects on various surfaces.

4 2. Describe locations of objects.

Example: Describe locations as up, down, in front, or behind.

Benchmark 3: All students will recognize and demonstrate what makes sounds. The concept of sound is very abstract. However, by investigating a variety of sounds made by common objects, students can form a connection between sounds the objects make and the materials from which the objects are made. Plastic objects make a different sound than do wooden objects.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discriminate between sounds made by different objects.

Example: Listen and compare the sounds make by drums and other musical instruments, such as cans, gourds, plastic spoons, pennies, and plastic disks. Sort a group of objects according to the sounds they make when they’re dropped.

Benchmark 4: All students will experiment with electricity and magnetism. Students will develop the concept that electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electric current can pass. Magnets attract and repel each other and certain kinds of other materials.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Demonstrate that magnets attract and repel.

4 2. Design a simple experiment to determine whether various objects will be attracted to magnets.

4 3. Construct a simple circuit.

Example: Use a battery, bulb, and wire to light a bulb, make a motor run, produce sound, or make an electromagnet.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will develop an understanding of biological concepts through direct experience with living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop a knowledge of organisms in their environment. The study of organisms will include observations and interactions within the natural world of the child.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare and contrast structural characteristics and functions of different organisms.

Example: Compare the structures for movement of a meal worm to the structures for movement of a guppy. Compare the leaf structures of a sprouted bean seed to the leaf structures of a corn seed.

4 2. Compare basic needs of different organisms in their environment.

Example: Compare the basic needs of a guinea pig to the basic needs of a tree.

3. Discuss ways humans and other organisms use their senses in their environments.

Example: Compare how people and other living organisms get food, seek shelter, and defend themselves.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and illustrate the life cycles of various organisms. Plants and animals have life cycles that include being born, developing into adults, reproducing, and eventually dying. Young organisms develop into adults that are similar to their parents.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and ask questions about the life cycles of various organisms.

Example: Plant a seed and observe and record its growth. Observe and record the changes of an insect as it develops from birth to adult.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will observe objects, materials, and changes in their environment, note their properties, distinguish one from another, and develop their own explanations of how things become the way they are.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the properties of earth materials. Earth materials may include rock, soil, and water. Playgrounds or parks are convenient study sites to observe.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe a variety of earth materials in their environment.

Examples: Observe rocks, soil, sand, air, and water.

4 2. Collect, observe, and become aware of properties of various soils.

Example: Students could bring in samples of soils from their surroundings and observe color, texture, and reaction to water.

4 3. Experiment with a variety of soils.

Example: By planting seeds in a variety of soil samples, students can compare the effect of different soils on plant growth.

4 4. Describe properties of many different kinds of rocks.

Example: Bring rocks from the playground, immerse in water, and observe color, texture, and reaction to liquids.

5. Observe fossils and discuss how fossils provide evidence of plants and animals that lived long ago. A fossil is a part of a once-living organism or a trace of an organism preserved in rock.

Example: Observe a variety of fossils.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and describe objects in the sky. The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe the moon and stars.

Example: Sketch the position of the moon in relation to a tree, rooftop, or building.

2. Observe and compare the length of shadows.

Example: Students can observe the movement of an object’s shadow during the course of a day, or construct simple sundials.

4 3. Discuss that the sun provides light and heat to maintain the temperature of the earth.

Example: When on the playground and the sun goes behind a cloud, discuss why it seems cooler.

Benchmark 3: All students will develop skills necessary to describe changes in the earth and weather. If the students revisit a study site regularly, they will develop an understanding that the earth’s surface and weather are constantly changing.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Describe changes in the surface of the earth.

Example: Students will observe erosion and changes in plant growth at a study site.

4 2. Observe, describe, and record daily and seasonal weather changes.

Example: Record weather observations.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will have a variety of educational experiences which involve science and technology. They will begin to understand the design process, which includes this general sequence: state the problem, the design, and the solution. As with the Science as Inquiry Standard, not every activity will involve all five stages. Students will develop the ability to solve simple design problems that are appropriate for their developmental level.

Benchmark 1: All students will work with a technology design as a part of a classroom challenge.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify a simple design problem; design a plan, implement the plan, evaluate the results and communicate the results.

Examples: Challenge the students to develop a better bubble-making solution using detergent, glycerin, and water; try different kinds of tools for making the biggest bubbles or the longest lasting bubbles.

Benchmark 2: All students will apply their understanding about science and technology. Children’s abilities in technological problem solving can be developed by firsthand experience in tackling tasks with a technological purpose, such as identifying what problems these designs involve. They can study technological products and systems in their world: zippers, coat hooks, can openers, bridges, paper clips.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that science is a way of investigating questions about their world.

Examples: Why was a zipper designed? What problem did the zipper solve? How has the zipper improved our lives? How is velcro like a zipper? What problem does velcro solve? How has velcro improved our lives?

4 2. Invent a product to solve problems.

Examples: Invent a new use for old products; potato masher, strainer, carrot peeler, or 2-liter pop bottle. Use a juice, 2 liter pop bottle or one-half gallon milk jug to invent something useful. Invent a way to keep the garbage container lid from falling on your head when you dump the trash.

3. Work together to solve problems.

Example: Share ideas about solving a problem.

4. Develop an awareness that women and men of all ages, backgrounds, and ethnic groups engage in a variety of scientific and technological work.

Example: Interview parents and other community and school workers.

5. Investigate how scientists use tools to observe.

Examples: Engage in research on the Internet; interview the weatherman; conduct research in the library; call or visit a laboratory.

Benchmark 3: All students will distinguish between natural and human-made objects. Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.

Indicators: The student will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort human-made versus natural objects.

Example: Compare and contrast real flowers to silk flowers.

4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and human-made objects.

Example: Use a magnifier when observing objects.

3. Ask questions about natural or human-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers.

Example: The teacher will ask, “Is this a human-made object? Why do you think so?” When observing a natural or human-made object, the child will be asked the reasoning behind his/her answer.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will demonstrate personal health and environmental practices. A variety of experiences will be provided to understand various scientific-related personal and environmental challenges. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of personal health. Personal health involves physical and mental well being, including hygienic practices, and self-respect.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that safety involves freedom from danger, risk, or injury.

Example: Classroom discussions could include bike safety, water safety. weather safety, sun protection.

4 2. Assume some responsibility for their own health.

Example: Practice good dental hygiene, cleanliness, and exercise.

4 3. Discuss that various foods contribute to health.

Example: Read and compare nutrition information found on labels; discuss healthy foods;. make a healthy snack.

Benchmark 2: All students will demonstrate an awareness of changes in the environment. Through classroom discussions, students can begin to recognize pollution as an environmental issue. scarcity as a resource issue, and crowded classrooms or schools as a population issue.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Define pollution.

Example: Take a pollution walk, gathering examples of litter and trash.

4 2. Develop personal actions to solve pollution problems in and around the neighborhood.

Example: After the pollution walk, children could work in groups to solve pollution problems they observed.

3 . Practice reducing, reusing, and recycling.

Examples: Present the problem that paper is being wasted in the classroom. Students could meet and form a plan to resolve this problem.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will experience some things about scientific inquiry and learn about people from history. Experiences of investigating and thinking about explanations, not memorization, will provide fundamental ideas about the history and nature of science. Students will observe and compare, pose questions, gather data and report findings. Posing questions and reporting findings are human activities that all students are able to understand. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science. and earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an awareness that people practice science. Science and technology have been practiced by people for a long time. Children and adults can derive great pleasure from doing science. They. can investigate, construct, and experience science. Individuals, as well as groups of students, can conduct investigations.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Recognize that they participate in science inquiry.

Examples: What will happen if a plant is under light for different lengths of time Challenge students to design an investigation to determine the “best” paper towel. Insist they define “best”. Challenge students to find out if a jaw breaker dissolves quicker in water or some other kind of liquid.

4 2 . Observe, using various media, historical samples of people in science who have made contributions.

Examples: Read short stories, view films or videos; discuss contributions made by people in science.

Overview of Science Standards 5-8 / Systems, Order & Organization / Evidence, Models & Explanations Change, Constancy, & Measurement / Patterns of Cumulative Change / Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry / Designing investigations / Understanding about scientific inquiry

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Properties of matter / Changes in properties of matter / Motions and forces / Transfer of energy

LIFE SCIENCE

Structure and function in living systems / Reproduction and heredity / Regulation and behavior / Populations and

ecosystems / Diversity and adaptations of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Structure of the Earth system / Past and present Earth processes / Components of the solar system

Motion and forces which affect earth phenomena

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Abilities of technological design / Understanding about science and technology

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Personal health / Populations, resources, & environments / Risks and causes of natural hazards

HISTORY & NATURE of SCIENCE

Scientific habits of mind / Contributions to science throughout history

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will develop the abilities to do scientific inquiry be able to demonstrate how scientific inquiry is applied, and develop understandings about scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities necessary to do the processes of scientific inquiry. Students can develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, questions, and a design which identifies and controls variables to gather evidence to formulate an answer to the original question, given appropriate curriculum and adequate instruction. Students are to be performed opportunities to engage in full and partial inquiries in order to develop the skills of inquiry.

Teachers can facilitate success by providing guidelines or boundaries for student inquiry. Teachers assist students to choose interesting questions, monitor design plans, provide relevant examples of effective observation and organization strategies and check and improve skills in the use of instruments. technology and techniques, Students at the middle level need special guidance in using evidence to build explanations, inference, and models, guidance to think critically and logically. and to see the relationships between evidence and explanations

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations.

Example: Explore properties and phenomena of materials, such as a balloon, string, straw, and tape.

Students explore properties and phenomena and generate questions to investigate.

7 2. Design and conduct a scientific investigation.

Example: Students design and conduct an investigation on the question, “Which paper towel absorbs the most water?” Materials include different kinds of paper towels, water, and a measuring cup. Components of the investigation should include background and hypothesis, identification of independent variable, dependent variable, constants, list of materials, procedures, collection and analysis of data, and conclusions.

7 3. Use appropriate tools. mathematics, technology, and techniques to gather. analyze and interpret data. Given an investigative question, students determine what to measure and how to measure. Students should display their results in a graph or other graphic format.

7 4. Think critically to make the relationships between evidence and logical conclusions.

Example: Students check data to determine: Was the question answered? Was the hypothesis supported/not supported? Did this design work? How could this experiment be improved” What other questions could be investigated?

7 5. Apply mathematical reasoning to scientific inquiry.

Examples: Look for patterns from the mean of multiple trials. such as rate of dissolving relative to different temperatures. Use observations for inductive and deductive reasoning, such as explaining a person’s energy level after a change in eating habits (e.g., use Likert-tv scale). State relationships in data, such as variables, which vary directly or inversely.

7 6. Communicate scientific procedures and explanations.

Example: Present a report of your investigation so that others understand it and can replicate the designs Benchmark 2: The students will apply different kinds of investigations to different kinds of questions. Some investigations involve observing and describing objects, organisms or events. Investigations can also involve collecting specimens, experiments. seeking more information, discovery of new objects and phenomena, and creating models to explain the phenomena. Instructional activities of scientific inquiry need to engage students in identifying and shaping questions for investigations. Different kinds of investigations suggest different kinds of questions. To help focus. students need to frame questions such as “What do we want to find out?” “How can we make the most accurate observations?” “If we do this, then what do we expect to happen?” Students need instruction to develop the ability to refine and refocus broad and ill-defined questions.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative investigation.

Example: While observing a decomposing compost pile, how could you collect quantitative (numerical, measurable) data? How could you collect qualitative (descriptive) data? What is a quantitative question (e.g., is the temperature constant throughout the compost pile?)? What is a qualitative question (e.g., does the color of the compost pile change over time?)?

Example: Each student designs a question to investigate. Class analyzes all questions to classify as qualitative or quantitative. After reading a science news article, identify variables and write a qualitative and/or quantitative investigative question related to the topic of the article.

10 2. Develop questions and adapt the inquiry process to guide an investigation.

Example: Adapt an existing lab or activity to: write a different question, identify another variable, and/or adapt the procedure to guide a new investigation.

Benchmark 3: The students will analyze how science advances through new ideas, scientific investigations, skepticism, and examining evidence of varied explanations. Scientific investigations often result in new ideas and phenomena for study. These generate new investigations in the scientific community. Science advances through legitimate skepticism. Asking questions and querying other scientists’ explanations is part of scientific inquiry. Scientists evaluate the proposed explanations by examining and comparing evidence identifying faulty reasoning, and suggesting other alternatives.

Much time can be spent asking students to scrutinize evidence and explanations, but to develop critical thinking skills students must be allowed this time. Data that is carefully recorded and communicated can be reviewed and revisited frequently providing insights beyond the original investigative period. This teaching and learning strategy allows students to discuss, debate, question, explain, clarify, compare, and propose new thinking through social discourse. Students will apply this strategy to their own investigations and to scientific theories.

Indicators: The students will.

7 1. After doing an investigation. generate alternative methods of investigation and/or further questions for inquiry.

Example: Ask “What would happen if..?” questions to generate new ideas for investigation.

10 2. Determine evidences which support or contradict a scientific breakthrough.

Example: Examine and analyze a scientific breakthrough [such as a Hubble discovery] using multiple, scientific sources. Explain how a reasonable conclusion is supported.

10 3. Identify faulty reasoning or conclusions that go beyond evidence and/or are not supported by data.

Example: Analyze evidence and data which support the theory of continental drift.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL, SCIENCE

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will apply process skills to develop an understanding of physical science including properties of matter, motion and forces and transfer of energy

Benchmark 1: The students will observe, compares, and classify properties of matter. Substances have characteristic properties. Substances often are placed in categories if they react or act ill similar ways. An example of a category, is metals. There arc more than 100 known elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds, which account for the living and non-living substances we encounter. Middle level students have the capability of understanding relationships among properties of matter. For example, they are able to understand that density is a ratio of mass to volume, boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure, and solubility is dependent on oil pressure and temperature.

These relationships are developed by concrete activities that involve hands-on manipulation of apparatus, making quantitative measurements, and interpreting data using graphs. It is important to contract characteristics of matter to common experiences so that concepts call be reconstructed. Some relevant questions, are “What happens in a pressure cooker?” Why does adding oil to boiling rice and pasta keep it from boiling over?” “What is in antifreeze and how does it keep your radiator from freezing? “Why do bridges have metal expansion joints?”

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify and communicate properties of matter, including phases of matter, boiling point, solubility, and density.

Examples: Measure and graph the boiling point temperatures for several different liquids. Graph the cooling curve of a freezing ice cream mixture. Observe substances that dissolve (sugar) and substances that do not dissolve (sand).

7 2. Using the characteristic properties of each original substance, distinguish components of various types of mixtures.

Examples: Separate alcohol and water using distillation. Separate sand, iron filings, and salt using a magnet and dissolving in water. Observe properties of kitchen powders (baking soda, salt, sugar, flour).

Mix in various combinations, then identify by properties.

10 3. Categorize chemicals to develop an understanding of properties.

Examples: Create operational definitions of metals and nonmetals and classify by observable chemical and physical properties.

Benchmark 2: The students will observe, measure, infer, and classify changes in properties of matter.

Substances react chemically in characteristic ways with other substances to form new substances (compounds) with different characteristic properties. Middle level students have the capability of inferring characteristics that are not directly observable and stating their reasons for their inferences. Students need opportunities to form relationships between what they can see and inferences of characteristics of matter.

We cannot always see the products of chemical reactions, so the teacher can provide opportunities for the student to measure reactants and products to build the concept of conservation of mass. “Is mass lost when baking soda (solid) and vinegar (liquid) react to produce a gas?” “How could we design an experiment which would (safely) contain the reaction in a closed container in order to measure the materials before and after the reaction?” Students need to engage in activities that lead to these understandings.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Measure and graph the effects of temperature on matter.

Examples: Change water from solid to liquid to gas using heat. Measure and graph temperature changes.

Observe changes in volume occupied.

10 2. Understand that total mass is consented in chemical reactions.

Examples: Measure the mass of an Alka Seltzer tablet, water, and a container with a lid. Then drop in tablet, close tightly, and measure the mass after the reaction.

10 3. Understand the relationship of elements to compounds.

Example: Draw a diagram to show how different compounds are composed of elements in various combinations.

Benchmark 3: The students will investigate motion and forces. All matter is subjected to forces that affect its position and motion. Relating motions to direction, amount of force. and/or speed allows students to graphically represent data for making comparisons. A moving object that is not being subjected to a force will continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed. The principle of inertia helps to explain many events such as sports actions, household accidents. and space walks. If more than one force acts upon an object moving along a straight line, the forces may reinforce each other or cancel each other out, depending on their direction and magnitude.

Students experience forces and motions in their daily lives when kicking balls, riding in a car, and walking on ice. Teachers should provide hands-on opportunities for students to experience these physical principles. The forces acting on natural and human-made structures can be analyzed using computer simulations, physical models, and games such as pool, soccer, bowling, and marbles.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Describe motion of an object (position. direction of motion, speed, potential, and kinetic energy).

Examples: Follow the path of a toy car down a ramp. The ramp is first covered with tile and then with sandpaper. Trace the force, direction, and speed of a baseball, from leaving the pitcher’s hand and returning back to the pitcher through one of many possible paths.

7 2. Measure motion and represent data in a graph.

Example: Roll a marble down a ramp. Make adjustments to the board or to the marble’s position in order to hit a target located on the floor. Measure and graph the results.

10 3. Demonstrate an understanding that an object not being subjected to a force will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line (Law of Inertia).

Example: Place a small object on a rolling toy vehicle; stop the vehicle abruptly; observe the motion of the small object. Relate to personal experience-stopping rapidly in a car.

10 4. Demonstrate and mathematically communicate that unbalanced forces will cause changes in the speed or direction of an object’s motion.

Example: With a ping pong ball and two straws, investigate the effects of the force of air through two straws on the ping-pong ball with the straws at the same side of ball, on opposite sides, and at other angles. Illustrate results with vectors (force arrows).

7 5. Understand that a force (e.g., gravity and friction) is a push or a pull.

Example: Explore the variables of (wheel and ramp) surfaces that would allow a powered car to overcome the forces of gravity and friction to climb an inclined plane.

7 6. Investigate force variables of simple machines.

Example: Investigate the load (force) that can be moved as the number of pulleys in a system is increased.

Benchmark 4: The students will understand and demonstrate the transfer of energy. Energy forms, such as heat, light, electricity, mechanical (motion), sound, and chemical energy are properties of substances. Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for life systems while heat convection currents deep within the earth are an energy source for gradually shaping the earth’s surface. Energy cycles through physical and living systems. Energy can be measured and predictions can be made based on these measurements.

Students can explore light energy using lenses and mirrors, then connect with real life applications such as cameras, eyeglasses, telescopes, and bar code scanners. Students connect the importance of energy transfer with sources of energy for their homes, such as chemical, nuclear, solar, and mechanical sources. Teachers provide opportunities for students to explore and experience energy forms, energy transfers, and make measurements to describe relationships.

Indicators:  The students will:

7 1. Understand that energy can be transferred from one form to another, including mechanical heat, light, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.

Examples: Design an energy transfer device. Use various forms of energy. The device should accomplish a simple task such as popping a balloon. Explore sound waves using a spring.

7 2. Sequence the transmission of energy through various real life systems.

Examples: Draw a chart of energy flow through a telephone from the caller’s voice to the listener’s ear.

7 3. Observe and communicate how light interacts with matter: transmitted, reflected, refracted, absorbed.

Example: Classify classroom objects as to how they interact with light: a window transmits; black paper absorbs; a projector lens refracts; a mirror reflects.

7 4. Understand that heat energy can be transferred from hot to cold by radiation, convection, and conduction.

Examples: Add colored warm water to cool water. Observe convection. Measure and graph temperature over time.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will apply process skills to explore and understand the structure and function in living systems, reproduction and heredity, regulation and behavior, populations and ecosystems, and diversity and adaptations of organisms.

Benchmark 1: The students will model structures of organisms and relate functions to the structures. Living things at all levels of organization demonstrate the complimentary nature of structure and function. Disease is a breakdown in structure or function of an organism. It is useful for middle level students to think of life as being organized from simple to complex, such as a complex organ system includes simpler structures. Understanding the structure and function of a cell can help explain what is happening in more complex systems. Students must also understand how parts relate to the whole, such as each structure is distinct and has a set of functions that serve the whole.

Teachers can help students understand this organization of life by comparing and contrasting the levels of organization in both plants and animals. Teachers reinforce understanding of the cellular nature of life by providing opportunities to observe live cultures, such as pond water, creating models of cells, and using the Internet to observe and describe electron micrographs. Early adolescence is an ideal time to investigate the human body systems as an example of relating structure and function of parts to the whole.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Relate the structure of cells, organs, tissues, organ systems, and whole organisms to their functions.

Examples: Identify human body organs and characteristics. Then relate their characteristics to function. Map human body systems, research their functions and show how each supports the health of the human body. Relate an organism’s structure to how it works.

7 2. Compare organisms composed of single cells with organisms that are multi-cellular.

Example: Create and compare two models: the major parts and their functions of a single-cell organism and the major parts and their functions of a multi-cellular organism, i.e. amoeba and hydra.

10 3. Conclude that breakdowns in structure or function of an organism may be caused by disease, damage, heredity or aging.

Example: Compare lung capacity of smokers with that of non-smokers and graph the results.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the role of reproduction and heredity for all living things. Reproduction is an activity of all living systems to ensure the continuation of every species. Organisms reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Every organism requires a set of instructions for specifying its traits. Heredity is the passage of these instructions from one generation to another. Students need to clarify misconceptions about reproduction, specifically about the role of the sperm and egg, and the sexual reproduction of flowering plants. In learning about heredity, younger middle level students will focus on observable traits and older students will gain understanding that genetic material carries coded information.

Teachers should provide opportunities for students to observe a variety of organisms and their sexual and asexual methods of reproduction by culturing bacteria, yeast cells, paramecium, hydra, mealworms, guppies, or frogs. Tracing the origin of student’s own development back to sperm and egg reinforces how life develops from a combination of male and female sex cells.

Discussions with students about traits they possess from their father and mother lead to understanding of how an organism receives genetic information from both parents and how new combinations result in the students’ unique characteristics.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Conclude that reproduction is essential to the continuation of a species.

Example: Observe and communicate the life cycle of an organism (seed to seed; larva to larva; or adult to adult). Culture more than one generation (life cycle) of an invertebrate organism. Discuss implications of one generation of the species not reproducing.

7 2. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.

Examples: Compare the regeneration of a planaria to the reproduction of an earthworm. Compare the propagation of new plants from cuttings (which skips a portion of the life cycle) with the process of producing a new plant from fertilization of an ovum.

7 3. Infer that the characteristics of an organism result from heredity and interactions with the environment.

Examples: Choose an organism. Research its characteristics. Infer if these characteristics result from heredity, environment, or both.

10 4. Understand that hereditary information contained in the genes (part of the chromosomes) of each cell is passed from one generation to the next.

Examples: In a cooperative setting, have students trace parent characteristics with that of an offspring. Use coin tossing to predict the probability of traits being passed on. Remember that not all traits are single gene traits.

Benchmark 3: The students will describe the effects of a changing external environment on the regulation/balance of internal conditions and processes of organisms. All organisms perform similar processes to maintain life. They take in food and gases, eliminate wastes, grow and progress through their life cycle, reproduce, and maintain stable internal conditions while living in a constantly changing environment. An organism’s behavior changes as its environment changes. Students need opportunities to investigate a variety of organisms to realize that all living things have similar fundamental needs. After observing an organism’s way of moving, obtaining food, and responding to danger, students can alter the environment and observe the effects on the organism.

This is an appropriate time to study the human nervous and endocrine systems. Students can compare and contrast how messages are sent through the body and how the body responds. An example is how fright causes changes within the body, preparing it for fighting or fleeing.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Understand the effects of a change in environmental conditions on behavior of an organism by carrying out a full investigation.

Example: Select a variable to alter the environment (e.g., temperature, light, moisture, gravity) and observe the effects on an organism (e.g., pillbug or earthworm). Students could also think of their own behaviors and determine environmental conditions that affect behavior.

7 2. Identify behaviors of an organism that are a response made to an internal or environmental stimulus.

Example: Observe the response of the body when competing in a running event. In order to maintain body temperature, various systems begin cooling through such processes as sweating and cooling the blood at the surface of the skin.

10 3. Explain that all organisms must be able to maintain and regulate stable internal conditions to survive in a constantly changing external environment.

Example: Investigate the effects of various stimuli on plants and how they adapt their growth: phototropism, geotropism, and thermotropism are examples.

Benchmark 4: The students will identify and relate interactions of populations of organisms within an ecosystem. A population consists of all individuals of a species that occur together at a given time and place. All populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem. Populations can be categorized by the functions they serve in an ecosystem: producers (make their own food), consumers (obtain food by eating other organisms), and decomposers (use waste materials). The major source of energy for ecosystems is sunlight. This energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight and is transformed by producers into food energy which then passes from organism to organism which we observe as food webs. The resources of an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic, determine the number of organisms within a population that can be supported.

Middle level students understand populations and ecosystems best when they have an opportunity to explore them actively. Taking students to a pond or a field, or even having them observe life under a rotting log, allows them to identify and observe interactions between populations and identify the physical conditions needed for their survival. A classroom terrarium, aquarium or river tank can serve as an excellent model for observing ecosystems and changes and interactions that occur over time between populations of organisms and changes in physical conditions. Constructing their own food webs, given a set of organisms, helps students to see multiple relationships more clearly.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Recognize that all populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem.

Examples: Create a classroom terrarium and identify the interactions between the populations and physical conditions needed for survival. Participate in a field study examining the living and non-living parts of a community.

7 2. Classify organisms in a system by the function they serve (producers, consumers, decomposers).

Example: Explore populations at a pond, field, forest floor, and/or rotting log. Have students identify the various food webs and observe that organisms in a system are classified by their function.

7 3. Trace the energy flow from the sun (source) to producers (chemical energy) to other organisms in food webs.

Example: Role play the interactions and energy flow of organisms in a food web by passing a ball of string starting with the sun, progressing to green plants, insects, etc.

7 4. Relate the limiting factors of biotic and abiotic resources with a species’ population growth and decline.

Examples: Change variables such as a wheat crop yield, mice, or a predator, and chart the possible outcomes. For example, how would a low population of mice affect the population of the predator over time? Participate in a simulation such as “Oh Deer” from Project Wild.

Benchmark 5: The students will observe the diversity of living things and relate their adaptations to their survival or extinction. Millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms are alive today. Animals and plants vary in body plans and internal structures. Biological evolution, gradual changes of characteristics of organisms over many generations, has brought variations among populations. Therefore, a structural characteristic, process, or behavior that helps an organism survive in its environment is called an adaptation. When the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics are insufficient, the species becomes extinct.

Teachers guide students toward thinking about similarities and differences as students investigate different types of organisms. Students can compare similarities between organisms in different parts of the world, such as tigers in Asia and mountain lions in North America to explore the concept of common ancestry. Instruction needs to be designed to uncover and correct misconceptions about natural selection. Students tend to think of all individuals in a population responding to change quickly rather than over a long period of time. Using examples such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered moths of Manchester helps develop understanding of natural selection over time. (Resource: The Beak of the Finch by Jonathon Weiner). Providing students with fossil evidence and allowing them time to construct their own explanations is important in developing middle level students’ understanding of extinction as a natural process that has affected earth’s species over time.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Conclude that millions of species of animals, plants, and microorganisms may look dissimilar on the outside but have similarities in internal structures, developmental characteristics, and chemical processes.

Examples: Research numerous organisms and create a classification system based on observations of similarities and differences. Compare this system with a dichotomous key used by scientists. Explore various ways animals take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.

7 2. Understand that adaptations of organisms-changes in structure, function, or behavior-contribute to biological diversity.

Example: Compare bird characteristics such as beaks, wings, and feet with how a bird behaves in its environment. When students work in cooperative groups to design different parts of an imaginary, bird. Relate characteristics and behaviors of that bird with its structures.

7 3. Associate extinction of a species with environmental changes and insufficient adaptive characteristics.

Example: Students use various objects to model bird beaks, such as spoons, toothpicks, clothes pins. Students use beaks to cat several types of food, such as cereal, marbles, raisins, noodles. When food sources change, species without adaptive traits die.

STANDARD 4: EARTH and SPACE SCIENCE

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will apply process skills to explore and develop an understanding of the structure of the earth system, earth’s history, and earth in the solar system.

Benchmark 1: The students will understand that the structure of the earth’s system is constantly changing due to the earth’s physical and chemical processes. Earth has four major interacting systems: the lithosphere/geosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. Earth material is constantly being reworked and changed. Physical forces, chemical reactions, heat, energy, and biological processes power the rock cycle, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle. The outermost layer of the earth is the lithosphere. Under the lithosphere is a hot, convecting mantle, and a dense, metal-rich core. Massive lithospheric plates containing continents and oceans slowly move in response to movement in the mantle. These plate motions also result in earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building. Constructive and destructive earth forces change earth’s landforms.

Students learn about the major earth systems and their relationships through direct and indirect evidence. First-hand observations of weather, rocks, soil, oceans, and gases lead students to make inferences about some of those major systems. Indirect evidence is used when determining the composition and movement in earth’s mantle and core.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Predict patterns from data collected.

Example: Map the movement of weather systems, and predict the local weather conditions.

7 2. Identify properties of the solid earth, the oceans and fresh water, and the atmosphere.

Examples: Create a concept map of earth materials using links to show connections, such as water causing erosion of solid, wind evaporating water, etc. Compare the densities of salt and fresh water. Classify rocks, minerals, and soil by properties. Compare heating and cooling over land and water.

7 3. Model earth’s cycles.

Examples: Create rock cycle and water cycle dioramas. Illustrate global ocean and wind currents. Flow chart a carbon atom through the carbon cycle.

10 4. Model earth’s plate movements that result in major geologic events and landform development.

Example: Plot the location of the earth’s plate boundaries and compare with recent volcano and earthquake activity in the Ring of Fire. Refer to U.S. Geologic Survey data available on the Internet.

10 5. Understand water’s major role in changing the solid surface of the earth, such as the effect of oceans on climates and water as an erosional force.

Examples: Map major climate zones and relate to ocean currents. Model top soil erosion. Measure sediment load in a nearby stream.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand that past and present earth processes are similar. The constructive and destructive forces we see today are similar to those that occurred in the past. Constructive forces include crustal formation by plate movement, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and deposition of sediments. Destructive forces include weathering, erosion, and glacial action. Earth’s history is written in the layers of the rocks and clues in the rocks can be used to piece together a story and picture. Geologic processes that form rocks and mountains today are similar to processes that formed rocks and mountains over a long period of time in the distant past.

Teachers can provide opportunities for students to observe and research evidence of changes that can be found in the earth’s crust. Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, sandstone, and shale show deposition of sediments over time. Volcanic flows of ancient volcanoes and earthquake damage can show us what to expect from modern day catastrophes. Glacial deposits show past ice ages and global warming and cooling. Some fossil beds enable the matching of rocks from different continents, and other fossil beds show how organisms developed over a long period of time. Students will need to apply knowledge of earth’s past to make decisions relative to earth’s future.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Understand the dynamics of earth’s constructive and destructive forces over time.

Examples: Construct models of rock types using food. Peanut brittle without the peanuts can illustrate a molten material crystallizing to form a solid substance similar to an igneous rock. Use an acid (vinegar or dilute HCl) to show the chemical similarity of limestone rock and fossilized shells. Students take a piece of sandstone and apply destructive forces to change it into sand. Observe the effects of weathering on various rock types.

10 2. Model geologic time to scale.

Example: “Toilet Paper Earth History”: Plot the major events [last ice age, beginning of Paleozoic Era, etc.] of earth history on a roll of toilet paper. Each sheet of toilet paper = 100 million years.

10 3. Relate geologic evidence to a record of earth’s history.

Example: Locate the same rock layer in two local road cuts; give fossil evidence and other kinds of evidence that the layer is the same in both exposures. Compare the types of organisms shown in the fossils found in a Kansas shale (mudstone) and a Kansas limestone and infer the ocean depositional environment from which the rock layer was formed.

10 4. Compare the current arrangement of the continents with the arrangement of continents throughout the earth’s history.

Examples: C ut out continents from a world map and slide them together to see how they fit. Plot each continental plate’s latitude and longitude through earth history.

Benchmark 3: The students will identify and classify planets and other solar system components. The solar system consists of the sun, which is an average-sized star in the middle of its life cycle, and the nine planets and their moons, asteroids, and comets, which travel in elliptical orbits around the sun. The sun, the central and largest body in the system, radiates energy outward. The earth is the third of nine planets in the system, and has one moon. Other stars in our galaxy are visible from earth, as are distant galaxies, but are so distant they appear as pinpoints of light. Scientists have discovered much about the composition and size of stars, and how they move in space.

Space and the solar system are of high interest to middle level students. Teachers can help students take advantage of the many print and on-line resources, as well as becoming amateur sky-watchers.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the planets.

Example: Search reliable Internet sources for current information. Create a graphic organizer to visualize comparisons of planets.

7 2. Develop understanding of spatial relationships via models of the earth/moon/ planets/sun system to scale.

Examples: Model the solar system to scale in a long hallway or school yard using rocks for rocky planets and balloons for gaseous planets. Designate a large object as the sun. Model the earth/moon/sun system to scale with the question: If the earth were the size of a tennis ball, how big would the moon be? How big would the sun be? How far apart would they be?

3. Research smaller components of the solar system such as asteroids and comets.

Example: Identify and classify characteristics of asteroids and comets.

10 4. Identify the sun as a star and compare its characteristics to those of other stars.

Examples: Classify, bright stars visible from earth by color, temperature, apparent brightness, and distance from earth. Sequence the life cycle of a star.

5. Trace cultural, as well as scientific, influences on the study of astronomy.

Example: Research ancient observations and explanations of the heavens and compare with today’s knowledge.

Benchmark 4: The students will model motions and identify forces that explain earth phenomena. There are many motions and forces that affect the earth. Most objects in the solar system have regular motions, which can be tracked, measured, analyzed, and predicted. These notions can explain such phenomena as the day, year, seasons, tides, phases of the moon, and eclipses of the sun and moon. The force that governs the motions within the solar system and keeps the planets in orbit around the sun, and the moon around the earth, is gravity. Phenomena on the earth’s surface, such as winds, ocean currents, the water cycle, and the growth of plants, receive their energy from the sun.

Misconceptions abound among middle level students about such concepts as the cause of the seasons and the reasons for the phases of the moon. Hands-on activities, role-playing, models, and computer simulations are helpful for understanding the relative motion of the planets and moons. Teachers can help students make connections between force and motion concepts, such as Newton’s Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, and applications to earth and space science. Many ideas are misconceptions which could be considered in a series of what if questions: What if the sun’s energy did not cause cloud formation and other parts of the water cycle? What if the earth rotated once a month? What if the earth’s axis was not tilted?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Demonstrate object/space/time relationships that explain phenomena such as the day, the month, the year, and the seasons.

Example: Use an earth/moon/sun model to demonstrate a day, a month, a year, and the seasons.

10 2. Model earth/moon positions that create phases of the moon and eclipses.

Example: Use students to demonstrate the relative positions of the sun, earth and moon to create eclipses, phases of the moon, and tides using a circle of students representing the fluid water.

10 3. Apply principles of force and motion to an understanding of the solar system.

Examples: Use string and ball model to illustrate gravity and movement creating an orbit around a hand.

10 4. Understand the effect of the angle of incidence of solar energy striking the earth’s surface on the amount of heat energy absorbed at the earth’s surface.

Examples: Place a piece of graph paper on the surface of a globe at the equator. Hold a flashlight 10 cm. from the paper parallel to the globe. Mark the lighted area of the paper. Then, place the graph paper at a high latitude. Again hold the flashlight parallel to the paper 10 cm from the paper. Compare the areas lit at the equator and at the high latitude, with the same amount of light energy. Where does each lighted square of paper receive the most energy?

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will demonstrate abilities of technological design and understandings about science and technology.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities of technological design. Technological design focuses on creating new products for meeting human needs. Students need to develop abilities to identify specific needs and design solutions for those needs. The tasks of technological design include addressing a range of needs, materials, and aspects of science. Suitable experiences could include designing intentions that meet a need in the student’s life.

Building a tower of straws is a good start for collaboration and work in design preparation and construction. Students need to develop criteria for evaluating their inventions/products. These questions could help develop criteria: Who will be the users of the product? How will we know if the product meets their needs? Are there any risks to the design? What is the cost? How much time will it take to build? Using their own criteria, students can design several ways of solving a problem and evaluate the best approach. Students could keep a log of their designs and evaluations to communicate the process of technological design. The log might address these questions: What is the function of the device? How does the device work? How did students come up with the idea? What were the sequential steps taken in constructing the design? What problems were encountered?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify appropriate problems for technological design.

Examples: Design a measurement instrument (e.g., weather instruments) for a science question that students are investigating. Select and research a current technology, then project how it might change in the next 20 years.

7 2. Design a solution or product, implement the proposed design, evaluate the product.

Example: Design, create and evaluate a product that meets a need or solves a problem in a student’s life.

3. Communicate the process of technological design.

Example: Keep a log of designing [and building] a technology, then use the log to explain the process.

Benchmark 2: The students will develop understandings of the similarities, differences, and relationships in science and technology. The primary difference between science and technology is that science investigates to answer questions about the natural world and technology creates a product to meet human needs by applying scientific principles. Middle level students are able to evaluate the impact of technologies, recognizing that most have both benefits and risks to society. Science and technology have advanced through contributions of many different people, in different cultures, at different times in history.

Students may compare and contrast scientific discoveries with advances in technological design. Students may select a device they use, such as a radio, microwave, or television, and compare it to one their grandparents used.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare the work of scientists with that of applied scientists and technologists.

Example: A scientist studies air pressure. A technologist designs an airplane wing. Complete a Venn diagram to compare the processes of scientists and technologists.

2. Evaluate limitations and trade-offs of technological solutions.

Example: Select a technology to evaluate using a graphic organizer. List uses, limitations, possible consequences.

3. Identify contributions to science and technology by many people and many cultures.

Example: Using a map of the world, mark the locations for people and events that have contributed to science.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will apply process skills to explore and develop an understanding of issues of personal health, population, resources and environment and natural hazards.

Benchmark 1: The students will make decisions based on scientific understanding of personal health. Regular exercise, rest, and proper nutrition are important to the maintenance and improvement of human health. Injury and illness are risks to maintaining health. Middle level students need opportunities to apply science learning to their understanding of personal health and science-based decision making related to health risks.

Parents and teachers need to work in partnership to help students understand that they, the middle level students, not some outside force (parents, school, the law), are the ultimate decision makers about their own personal health. The challenge to teachers is to help students apply scientific understanding to health decisions by giving the students opportunities to gather evidence and draw their own conclusions on topics such as smoking, healthy eating, wearing bike helmets, and wearing car seat belts.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify individual nutrition, exercise, and rest needs based on science.

Example: Design, implement, and self-evaluate a personal nutrition and exercise program.

7 2. Use a systemic approach to thinking critically about personal health risks and benefits.

Example: Compare and contrast immediate benefits of eating junk food to long term benefits of a lifetime of healthy eating.

Example: Evaluate the risks and benefits of foods, medicines, and personal products. Evaluate and compare the nutritional and toxic properties of various natural and synthetic foods.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the impact of human activity on resources and environment. When an area becomes overpopulated by a species, the environment will change due to the increased use of resources. Middle level students need opportunities to learn about concepts of carrying capacity. They need to gather evidence and analyze effects of human interactions with the environment.

Teachers can help their students understand these global issues by starting locally. “What changes in the atmosphere are caused by all the cars we use in our community?” Ground-level ozone indicators provide an opportunity to quantify the effect. “After a heavy rain, where does the water go that runs off your lawn?” “What happens to that water source if your lawn was just fertilized before the rain?” The role of the teacher is to help students to apply scientific understanding, gained through their own investigations, of environmental issues. Teachers should help students base environmental decisions on understanding, not emotion.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Investigate the effects of human activities on the environment.

Examples: Count the number of cars that pass the school during a period of time. Investigate the effects of traffic volume on environmental quality (e.g., water and air quality, plant health). Investigate the effects of repeatedly walking off the sidewalks. Discuss the implications to the environment. Participate in an environmental Internet study.

2. Base decisions on perceptions of benefits and risks.

Example: Evaluate the benefits of burning fossil fuels to meet energy needs against the risks of global warming.

Benchmark 3: The students will understand that natural hazards are dynamic examples of earth processes which cause us to evaluate risks. California has earthquakes. Florida has hurricanes. Kansas has tornadoes. Natural hazards can also be caused by human interaction with the environment, such as channeling a stream. Middle level students need opportunities to identify the causes and human risks and challenges of natural hazards.

Teachers call help students use data on frequency of occurrence of natural hazard events both to dispel unnatural fears for some students and overcome the common middle level student misconception of invincibility (it won’t happen to me). What would you need in a tornado survival kit to keep in the basement for your family? This question would cause students to assess the kinds of damage caused by a tornado (need a flashlight because electrical lines may be down) and the kinds of support services available in the community.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Evaluate risks and define appropriate actions associated with natural hazards.

Example: Find news articles that show inadvisable risks taken in a natural hazard situation.

10 2. Recognize patterns of internal and external earth processes that may result in natural hazards.

Example: Build wood block models of plate boundary interaction: subduction, translation, and spreading.

10 3. Communicate human activities that can cause/contribute to natural hazards.

Example: How can channeling a stream promote flooding downstream? Borrow a County Conservation Commission’s stream trailer to investigate the dynamics of a stream and the effects of human interaction with the stream.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students will examine and develop an understanding of science as a historical human endeavor.

Benchmark 1: The students will develop scientific habits of mind. Science requires varied abilities depending on the field of study, type of inquiry, and cultural context. The abilities characteristic of those engaged in scientific investigations include: reasoning, intellectual honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, appropriate skepticism, open-mindedness and the ability to make logical conclusions based on current evidence.

Teachers can support the development of scientific habits of mind by providing students with on-going instruction using inquiry as a framework. Students can apply science concepts in investigations. They can work individually and on teams while conducting inquiry. They can share their work through varied mediums, and they can self-evaluate their learning. High expectations for accuracy, reliability, and openness to differing opinions should be exercised. The indicators listed below can be embedded within the other standards.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Practice intellectual honesty.

Example: Analyze news articles to evaluate if the articles apply statistics/data to bring clarity, or if the articles use data to mislead. Analyze data and recognize that an hypothesis not supported by data should not be perceived as right or wrong.

2. Demonstrate skepticism appropriately.

Example: Students will attempt to replicate an investigation to support or refute a conclusion.

3. Display open-mindedness to new ideas.

Example: Share interpretations that differ from currently held explanations on topics such as global warming and dietary claims. Evaluate the validity of results and accuracy of stated conclusions.

4. Base decisions on evidence.

Example: Review results of individual, group, or peer investigations to assess accuracy of conclusions based upon data collection and analysis and use of evidence to reach a conclusion.

Benchmark 2: The students will research contributions to science throughout history. Scientific knowledge is not static. New knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries that may be beneficial or harmful. Contributions to scientific knowledge can be met with resistance causing a need for replication and open sharing of ideas. Scientific contributions have been made over an expanse of time by individuals from varied cultures,

ethnic backgrounds, and across gender and economic boundaries.

Students should engage in research realizing that the process may be a small portion of a larger process or of an event that takes place over a broad historical context. Teachers should focus on the contributions of scientists and how the culture of the time influenced their work. Reading biographies, interviews with scientists, and analyzing vignettes are strategies for understanding the role of scientists and the contributions of science throughout history.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Recognize that new knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries.

Example: Discuss discoveries that replaced previously held knowledge, such as safety of Freon or saccharine use, knowledge concerning the transmission of AIDS, cloning, Pluto’s status as a planet.

2. Replicate historic experiments to understand principles of science.

Example: Rediscover principles of electromagnetism by replicating Oerstad’s compass needle experiment. (Compass needle deflects perpendicular to current carrying wire.)

3. Relates contributions of men and women to the fields of science.

Example: Research the contributions of men and women of science, create a timeline to demonstrate the ongoing contributions of dedicated scientists from across ethnic, religious and gender lines.

By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards 9-12

Systems, Order & Organization / Evidence, Models & Explanations / Change. Constancy, & Measurement

Patterns of Cumulative Change / Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

PHYSICAL SCIENCE-CHEMISTRY Structure of atoms / Structure and properties of matter / Chemical reactions

PHYSICAL SCIENCE-PHYSICS Motions and forces / Conservation of energy & increase of disorder / Interactions of energy and matter

LIFE SCIENCE / The cell / Molecular basis of heredity / Biological evolution / Interdependence of organisms / Matter, energy & organization in living systems/Behavior of organisms/ Structure, function, and diversity of organisms

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE Energy in the earth system / Interactions of earth’s subsystems / Origin and evolution of the earth system / Origin and evolution of the universe

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY / Abilities of technological design and understanding about science & technology

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES / Personal health / Population growth / Natural resources & environmental quality / Natural and human-induced hazards / Science, technology and society

HIST. & NATURE OF SCI. Science as a human endeavor/Nature of scientific knowledge/Historical perspectives

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry and understandings about scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the fundamental abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Develop through experience a rich understanding and curiosity of the natural (material) world.

Example: Students must have a rich set of experiences to draw on in order to ask and evaluate research questions.

10 2. Develop questions and identify concepts that guide scientific investigations.

Examples: Formulate a testable hypothesis, where appropriate, and demonstrate the logical connections between the scientific concepts guiding an hypothesis and the design of an experiment. Demonstrate a knowledge base, appropriate procedures, and conceptual understanding of scientific investigations.

10 3. Design and conduct scientific investigations.

Examples: Requires introduction to the major concepts in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety precautions, assistance with methodological problems, recommendations for use of technologies, clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry, and scientific knowledge obtained from sources other than the actual investigation. May also require student clarification of the question, method (including replication), controls, variables, display of data, revision of methods and replication of explanations, followed by a public presentation of the results with a critical response from peers. Always, students must use evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument for their proposed explanations.

10 4. Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.

Examples: A variety of technologies, such as hand tools, measuring instruments, and calculators, should be an integral component of scientific investigations. The use of computers for the collection, organization, analysis, and display of data is also a part of this standard. Mathematics plays an essential role in all aspects of an inquiry. Mathematical tools and models guide and improve the posing of questions, gathering data, constructing explanations, and communicating results.

Technology is used to gather and manipulate data. New techniques and tools provide new evidence to guide inquiry and new methods to gather data, thereby contributing to the advance of science. The accuracy and precision of the data, and therefore the quality of the exploration, depends on the technology used.

5. Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.

Examples: Student inquiries should culminate in formulating an explanation or model. Models can be physical, conceptual, or mathematical. In the process of answering the questions, the students should engage in discussions that result in the revision of their explanations. Discussions should be based on scientific knowledge, the use of logic, and evidence from their investigations.

6. Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.

Example: Emphasize the critical abilities of analyzing an argument by reviewing current scientific understanding, weighing the evidence, and examining the logic so as to decide which explanations and models are best. In other words, although there may be several plausible explanations, students should be able to use scientific criteria to determine the supported explanation(s).

7. Communicate and defend a scientific argument.

Example: These abilities include writing procedures, expressing concepts, reviewing information, summarizing data, using language appropriately, developing diagrams and charts, explaining statistical analysis, speaking clearly and logically, constructing a reasoned argument, and responding appropriately to critical comments.

STANDARD 2A: CHEMISTRY

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop an understanding of the structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interactions of energy and matter.

Benchmark 1: The student will understand the structure of the atom.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Atoms are the fundamental organizational unit of matter.

10 2. Atoms have smaller components that have measurable mass and charge.

10 3. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons, which determine the mass of the atom.

10 4. The dense nucleus of an atom is in the center of an electron cloud, and the electron cloud determines the size of the atom.

10 5. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but differing in neutron number.

6. Radioactive isotopes spontaneously decompose and are a source of radioactivity.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the states and properties of matter.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Elements are substances that contain only one kind of atom.

10 2. Elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number on the periodic table.

10 3. The periodic table organizes elements according to similar physical and chemical properties by groups, periods, and categories.

Examples: Elements in the same group share similar chemistry. Periods indicate an energy level of the outermost electrons. Categories are regions such as metals, non-metals and transitions elements.

4. There are discrete energy levels for electrons in an atom.

Example: Color is a result of electrons changing from one energy level to another.

5. Valence electrons (those farthest from the nucleus or highest energy electrons) determine the chemistry of the atom.

10 6. Chemical bonds result when electrons are transferred or shared between atoms.

7. Compounds result from chemical bonds between ions or atoms.

Examples: Ionic compounds result from an attraction between ions of opposite charge (ionic bond). Molecular compounds result from atoms sharing electrons (covalent bond).

8. The interactions among ions or between molecules determines the physical properties of compounds.
9. Kinetic models are used to explain the physical properties of gases.
10. Carbon atoms can bond to each other in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of molecular structures including relatively large molecules essential to life.

Benchmark 3: The students will gain a basic concept of chemical reactions.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Understand that two or more of the following may often identify chemical reactions: physical property change, effervescence, mass change, precipitation, light emission, and heat exchange.
2. Explore chemical reactions that absorb energy from or release energy to the surroundings.
3. Distinguish different types of chemical reactions such as synthesis, decomposition, displacement, acid/base, and oxidation/reduction.
4. Demonstrate the Law of Conservation of Mass through stoichiometric relationships.
5. Appreciate the significance of chemical reactions in nature and those used everyday in society.
6. Recognize entropy (degree of disorder) as a driving force behind chemical reactions.
7. Assess the interrelationships between the rate of chemical reactions and variables such as temperature, concentration, catalysts, and reaction type.

STANDARD 2B: PHYSICS

Benchmark 1: The students will understand the relationship between motions and forces.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The motion of an object can be described in terms of its displacement (position), velocity and acceleration.

10 2. Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied.

Examples: When no net force acts, the object either doesn’t move or moves with constant speed in a straight line. When a net force acts upon an object, the object will change its motion. The magnitude of the change in motion is given by the relationship F = ma, regardless of the type of force.

3. Whenever a system applies force to an object, that object applies a related force to the system that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Examples: The change in an object’s motion (acceleration) is in the direction of the net applied force.

4. Gravitation is a relatively weak, attractive force that acts upon and between any two masses.
5. Electric force is the attraction or repulsion that exists between two charged particles. Its magnitude is vastly greater than that due to gravity.

10 6. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force.

Example: Moving electrical charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electrical forces.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the conservation of mass and energy, and that the overall disorder of the universe increases with time.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The energy of the universe is constant.

Examples: Physicists view matter as equivalent to energy. Matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed but they can be interchanged.

10 2. Energy may be classified as kinetic, potential or energy within a field.

Examples: Kinetic energy deals with the motion of objects. Potential energy results from objects’ relative configuration. Electromagnetic radiation is an example of energy contained within a field. These energies are interchangeable: kinetic to potential, potential to kinetic, potential to field, etc.

3. Heat is the transfer of energy from objects at higher temperature to objects at lower temperature.

Examples: The internal energy of substances consists in part of movement of atoms, molecules, and ions. Temperature is a measure of the average magnitude of this movement. Heat is an exchange of internal energy between systems.

4. The universe tends to become less organized and more disordered with time with every chemical and physical change.

Example: A logical outcome of this is that the energy of the universe will tend toward a more uniform distribution.

Benchmark 3: The students will understand the basic interactions of matter and energy.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Waves can transfer energy when they interact with matter.
2. Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated.

Example: Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.

3. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy in unique, discrete amounts.

Example: Atoms and molecules can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to specific amounts of energy. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance and form the basis for several forms of spectroscopy.

10 4. Electrons flow easily in conductors (such as metals). There is much more resistance to electron flow in insulators (such as glass). Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures, some materials become superconductors and offer little or no resistance to the flow of electrons.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop an understanding of the cell, molecular basis of heredity, biological evolution, interdependence of organisms, matter, energy, and organization in living systems, and the behavior of organisms.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of the cell.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

10 1. Cells are composed of a variety of specialized structures that carry out specific functions.

Examples: Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside environment and controls flow of materials into and out of the cell. Proteins embedded in the membrane help carry out specific life processes. In eukaryotes, similar membranes and their associated proteins help to compartmentalize and isolate the various chemical environments of the cell into organelles. Organelles are specialized to carry out specific life functions for the cell such as protein synthesis, protein processing and packaging, energy transformation, communication, etc.

10 2. Most cell functions involve specific chemical reactions.

Example: Food molecules taken into cells provide the chemicals needed to synthesize other molecules. Enzymes catalyze both breakdown and synthesis in the cell. In eukaryotes these reactions take place in membrane-bound organelles.

10 3. Cells function and replicate as a result of information stored in DNA and RNA molecules.

Example: Proteins and gene expression regulate cell functions. This regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell division.

10 4. Some plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are the sites of photosynthesis.

Example: The process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems. The cell is the basic unit of function for living things.

5. Cells can differentiate, thereby enabling complex multicellular organisms to form.

Example: In development of most multicellular organisms, a fertilized cell forms an embryo that differentiates into an adult. Differentiation is regulated through expression of different genes and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of chromosomes, genes, and the molecular basis of heredity.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Hereditary information is contained in genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. Each gene carries a single unit of information. An inherited trait of an individual can be determined by one or by many genes, and a single gene can influence more than one trait.

Examples: Alleles, which are different forms of a gene, may be dominant, recessive, co-dominant, etc. The expression of traits is determined by a complex interaction of genes, developmental history, and the environment.

10 2. Experiments have shown that all known living organisms contain DNA or RNA as their genetic material.

Examples: Frederick Griffith and Avery’s work with bacteria demonstrated DNA changed properties of cells. Beadle and Tatum’s work provided a mechanism for gene action and a link to modern molecular genetics. Hershey and Chase’s work demonstrated that viral DNA contained the genetic code for new virus production in bacterial cells.

10 3. DNA provides the instructions that specify the characteristics of organisms.

Examples: Nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil) make up DNA and RNA molecules. Sequences of nucleotides that either determine or contribute to a genetic trait are called genes. DNA is replicated by using a template process that usually results in identical copies. DNA is packaged in chromosomes during cell replication.

6. Organisms usually have a characteristic numbers of chromosomes; one pair of these may determine the sex of individuals.

Example: Most cells in humans contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair contains the XX for female or XY for male.

7. Gametes carry the genetic information to the next generation.

Examples: Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair. Gametes unite to form a new individual in most organisms. Many possible combinations of genes explain features of heredity such as how traits can be hidden for several generations.

8. Mutations occur in DNA at very low rates.

Examples: Some changes make no difference to the organism or to future generations. Phenotypic changes can be harmful; some mutations enable organisms to survive changes in their environment. Only mutations in the germ cells are passed on to offspring and therefore can bring about beneficial or harmful changes in future generations.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand⁽¹⁾ major concepts of biological evolution.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. That the theory of evolution is both the history of descent with modification of different lineages of organisms from common ancestors and the ongoing adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes (modified from Futuyma, 1998).

10 2. That biologists use evolution theory to explain the earth’s present day biodiversity-the number, variety, and variability of organisms.

Example: Patterns of diversification and extinction of organisms are documented in the fossil record. The fossil record provides evidence of simple, bacteria-like life as far back as 3.8+ billion years ago. Natural selection, and other processes, can cause populations to change from one generation to the next. A single population can separate into two or more independent populations. Over time, these populations can also become very different from each other. If the isolation continues, the genetic separation may become irreversible. This process is called specification. Populations and entire lineages can go extinct. One effect of extinction is to increase the apparent differences between populations. As intermediate populations go extinct, the surviving lineages can become more distinct from one another.

3. That biologists recognize that the primary mechanisms of evolution are natural selection and random genetic drift.

Example: Natural selection includes the following concepts: 1) Heritable variation exists in every species; 2) some heritable traits are more advantageous to reproduction and/or survival than are others; 3) there is a finite supply of resources required for life; not all progeny survive; 4) individuals with advantageous traits generally survive to reproduce; 5) the advantageous heritable traits increase in the population through time.

10 4. The sources and value of variation.

Examples: Variation of organisms within and among species increases the likelihood that some members will survive under changed environmental conditions. New heritable traits primarily result from new combinations of genes and secondarily from mutations or changes in the reproductive cells; changes in other cells of a sexual organism are not passed to the next generation.

5. That evolution by natural selection is a broad, unifying theoretical framework in biology.

Examples: Evolution provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable insights, especially in agriculture and medicine. The common ancestry of living things allows them to be classified into a hierarchy of groups; these classifications or family trees follow rules of nomenclature; scientific names have unique definitions and value. Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record that correlates with geochemical (e.g., radioisotope) dating results. The distribution of fossil and modern organisms is related to geological and ecological changes (i.e. plate tectonics, migration).

Benchmark 4: Students will understand the interdependence of organisms and their interaction with the physical environment.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Atoms and molecules on the earth cycle among the living and nonliving components of the biosphere.

Example: The chemical elements essential to life circulate in the biosphere in characteristic paths known as biogeochemical cycles [e.g., nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, etc. cycles].

10 2. Energy flows through ecosystems.

Examples: Organisms, ecosystems, and the biosphere possess thermodynamic characteristics that exhibit a high state of internal order. Radiant energy that enters the earth’s surface is balanced by the energy that leaves the earth’s surface. Transfer of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem is called the food chain; at each transfer as much as 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.

10 3. Organisms cooperate and compete in ecosystems.

Example: The interrelationships and interdependence of organisms may generate stable ecosystems.

10 4. Living organisms have the capacity to produce populations of infinite size but environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension has profound effects on the interactions among organisms.

Example: The presence and success of an organism, or a group of organisms, depends upon a large number of environmental factors.

10 5. Human beings live within and impact ecosystems.

Example: Humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Human modifications of habitats through direct harvesting, pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors affect ecosystem stability.

Benchmark 5: Students will develop an understanding of matter, energy, and organization in living systems.

Indicators: The students will develop an understanding of:

10 1. Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain their chemical and physical organization.

Examples: All matter tends toward more disorganized states. With death, and the cessation of energy intake, living systems rapidly disintegrate.

10 2. The sun is the primary source of energy for life through the process of photosynthesis.

Examples: Plants capture energy by absorbing light and using it to form simple sugars. The energy in these sugar molecules can be used to assemble larger molecules with biological activity, including proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and fats. These molecules serve as sources of energy for life processes.

10 3. Food molecules contain energy. This energy is made available by cellular respiration.

Examples: Energy is released when the bonds of food molecules are broken and new compounds with lower energy bonds are formed. Cells usually use this energy to regenerate ATP, the molecule involved in cell metabolism.

4. The structure and function of an organism serves to acquire, transform, transport, release, and eliminate the matter and energy used to sustain the organism.

10 5. The distribution and abundance of organisms and populations in ecosystems are limited by the availability of matter and energy, and the ability of the ecosystem to recycle materials.

6. As matter and energy flow through different levels of organization of living systems-cells, organs, organisms, communities-and between living systems and the physical environment, chemical elements are recombined in different ways. Each recombination results in the storage of some energy and a dissipation of some energy into the environment as heat. Matter is recycled; energy is not.

Benchmark 6: Students will understand the behavior of animals.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Animals have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli.

Examples: Responses to external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism’s own species and others, as well as environmental changes. These responses can be innate and/or learned. Animals often live in unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with uncertainty and change.

2. Most multicellular animals have nervous systems that underlie behavior.

Examples: Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.

3. Like other aspects of an organism’s biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.

Examples: Behaviors are often adaptive when viewed in terms of survival and reproductive success. Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Benchmark 7: Students will demonstrate an understanding of structure, function, and diversity of organisms.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of microbiological agents, including prions, viruses, bacteria, and protists.

Examples: Viruses are particles that cause infections. They are composed of genomes encased in a protein shell. They can only reproduce in a host organism. Because of these properties, vaccines are effective for viral infections but antibiotics are not. Bacteria are a very diverse group of organisms that account for much of this planet’s biomass and cycling of materials. They are prokaryotes. Medially, several infectious diseases (e.g. strep throat, staph infections, cholera, syphilis, food poisoning, etc.) are caused by bacteria. Protists are unicellular eukaryotes whose ancestors gave rise to other major kingdoms; some are disease agents (e.g. malaria, amoebic dysentery) and may require an animal vector. Understanding of these basic groups underlies effective sanitation and hygiene.

2. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of fungi.

Example: Fungi are vital decomposers and have special symbiotic relationships with plants. Fungi are also important commercially and as the original source of antibiotics. Fungi can also cause disease (e.g. ringworm, athlete’s foot, etc.).

10 3. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and human relationships of plants.

Examples: Plant structures vary and this variation is important in understanding the function of plants in farming, pharmaceutical products, etc. Photosynthesis is the basis for nearly all food chains and our food production. Understanding biology of plants underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

10 4. The basic biology, diversity, anatomy, ecology and medical effects of major animal groups.

Example: Animals vary; this variation is important in understanding the function of animals in farming, medical research, etc. Understanding the biology of animals underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

5. Humans as complex, soft machines that require many systems to operate properly.

Examples: Organ systems have specific structures and functions; they interact with each other. Infections, developmental problems, trauma and aging result in specific diseases and disorders.

10 6. The structures and processes of development and reproduction.

Examples: Reproduction is essential to all ongoing life and is accomplished with wide variation in life cycles and anatomy. Understanding of basic mechanisms, of reproduction and development, as well as changes of aging, is critical to leading a healthy life, parenting, and making societal decisions. Environmental factors (e.g. radiation, chemicals) can cause inherited gene mutations that directly alter development or cellular repair mechanisms, leading to the development of various cancers. Changes to non-reproductive cell lines are not passed to the next generation.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, students will develop an understanding of energy in the earth system, geochemical cycles, the formation and organization of the earth system, and the organization and development of the universe.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding of the sources of energy that power the dynamic earth system.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. All energy on earth originates with the sun, is generated by radioactive decay in the earth’s interior, or is left over from the earth’s formation.

10 2. Convection circulation in the mantle is driven by the outward transfer of the earth’s internal heat.

10 3. Movable continental and oceanic plates make up the earth’s surface; the hot, convecting mantle is the energy source for plate movement.

10 4. Energy from the sun heats the oceans and the atmosphere, and affects oceanic and atmospheric circulation.

5. Energy flow determines global climate and, in turn, is influenced by geographic features, cloud cover, and the earth’s rotation.

Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the actions and the interactions of the earth’s subsystems: the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The systems at the earth’s surface are powered principally, by the sun and contain an essentially fixed amount of each stable chemical atom or element.

10 2. The processes of the carbon, rock, and water cycles.

10 3. Water, glaciers, winds, waves, and gravity as weathering and erosion agents.

10 4. Earth’s motions and seasons.

5. The composition and structure of earth’s atmosphere.

10 6. Severe storms and safety precautions.

10 7. Basic weather forecasting, weather maps, fronts, and pressure systems.

Benchmark 3. Students will develop an understanding of the origin and evolution of the dynamic earth system.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The geologic time scale and how it relates to the history of the earth.

2. Rock sequences, fossils and radioactive decay and how they are used to estimate the time rocks are formed.

10 3. Earth changes as short term (during a human’s lifetime) such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and as long term (over a geological time scale) such as mountain building and plate movements.

4. The dramatic changes in the earth’s atmosphere (i.e. introduction of O₂) which were affected by the emergence of life on earth.

10 5. Formation of minerals and rocks by way of the rock cycle.

Benchmark 4. As a result of activities in grades 9-12, students will develop an understanding of the organization of the universe and its development.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Formation of the universe.

Example: The sun is an ordinary star. It appears that many stars have planets orbiting them. Our galaxy (The Milky Way) contains about 100 billion stars. Galaxies are a level of organization of the Universe. There are at least 100 billion galaxies in the observable Universe. Galaxies are organized into large superclusters with large voids between them.

10 2. Expansion of the Universe from a hot dense early state.

Example: By studying the light emitted from distant galaxies, it has been found that they are moving apart from one another. Cosmological understanding, including the Big Bang theory, is based on this expansion.

3. Organization and development of stars, solar systems, and planets.

Examples: Nebulae from which stars and planets form are mostly hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements were and continue to be made by the nuclear fusion process. The sun is a second-generation star which along with its planets, were formed billions of years after the Big Bang.

4. General methods of and importance of the exploration of our solar system and space.

STANDARD 5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop understandings about science and technology and abilities of technological design.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop understandings about science and technology.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Creativity, imagination, and a broad knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.
2. Science and technology are pursued for different purposes.

Examples: Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world. Applied science or technology is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems.

3. Scientists in different disciplines ask different questions, use different methods of investigation, and accept different types of evidence to support their explanations.
4. Science advances new technologies. New technologies open new areas for scientific inquiry.
5. Technological knowledge is often not made public because of the financial and military potential of the idea or invention. Scientific knowledge is made public through presentations at professional meetings and publications in scientific journals.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop an understanding of personal and community health, population growth, natural resources, environmental quality, natural and human-induced hazards, and science and technology in local, national and global settings.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding of the overall functioning of human systems and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Hazards and the potential for accidents exist for all human beings.
2. The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the disease-producing organism.

Examples: Many diseases can be prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, result from specific body dysfunctions and are not communicable.

3. Informed personal choices concerning fitness and health involve understanding of chemistry and biology.
4. Selection of foods and eating patterns determine nutritional balance.
5. Sexuality is basic to healthy human development.
6. Intelligent use of chemical products relates directly to an understanding of chemistry.

Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of population growth.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

10 1. Rate of change in populations is determined by the combined effects of birth and death, and emigration and immigration.

Examples: Populations can increase through exponential growth. Population growth changes resource use and environmental conditions.

2. A variety of factors influence birth rates and fertility rates.

10 3. Populations can reach limits to growth.

Examples: Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that can be sustained in a given environment. Natural resources limit the capacity of ecosystems to sustain populations.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand that human populations use natural resources and influence environmental quality.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Natural resources from the lithosphere and ecosystems have been and will continue to be used to sustain human populations.

Examples: These processes of ecosystems include maintenance of the atmosphere, generation of soils, control of the hydrologic cycle, and recycling of nutrients. Humans are altering many of these processes, and the changes may be detrimental to ecosystem function.

2. The earth does not have infinite resources.

Example: Increasing human consumption places stress on most renewable resources and depletes nonrenewable resources.

3. Materials from human activities affect both physical and chemical cycles of the earth.

Example: Natural systems can reuse waste, but that capacity is limited.

4. Humans use many natural systems as resources.

Benchmark 4: Students will understand the effect of natural and human-influenced hazards.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

1. Natural processes of earth may be hazardous for humans.

Examples: Humans live at the interface between two dynamically changing systems, the atmosphere and the earth’s crust. The vulnerability of societies to disruption by natural processes has increased. Natural hazards include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and severe weather. Examples of slow, progressive changes are stream channel position, sedimentation, continual erosion, wasting of soil and landscapes.

2. There is a need to access potential risk and danger from natural and human induced hazards.

Examples: Human initiated changes in the environment bring benefits as well as risks to society. Various changes have costs and benefits. Environmental ethics have a role in the decision making process.

Benchmark 5: Students will develop an understanding of the relationship between science, technology, and society.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Science and technology are essential components of modern society. Science and technology indicate what can happen, not what should happen. The latter involves human decisions about the use of knowledge.
2. Understanding basic concepts and principles of science and technology should precede active debate about the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of various challenges related to science and technology.
3. Progress in science and technology can be affected by social issues and challenges.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students will develop understanding of science as a human endeavor, the nature of scientific knowledge, and historical perspectives.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding that science is a human endeavor.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of science as both vocation and avocation.
2. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods and norms of honesty.
3. Recognize the universality of basic science concepts and the influence of personal and cultural beliefs that embed science in society.
4. Recognize that society helps create the ways of thinking (mindsets) required for scientific advances, both toward training scientists and the education of populace to utilize benefits of science (e.g., standards of hygiene, attitudes toward forces of nature, etc.).
5. Recognize society’s role in supporting topics of research and determining institutions where research is conducted.

Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge.

Examples: Scientific knowledge is generally empirically based, consistent with reality, predictive, logical, and is skeptical. Scientific knowledge is subject to experimental or observational confirmation. Scientific knowledge is built on past understanding and can be refined and added to.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand science from historical perspectives.

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the history of science.

Examples: Modern science has been a successful enterprise, contributing to dramatic improvements in the human condition. Science progresses by incremental advances of scientists or teams of scientists. Some advances that are fundamental and long-lasting include: Copernican revolution, Newtonian physics, relativity, geological time scale, plate tectonics, atomic theory, nuclear physics, biological evolution, germ theory, industrial revolution, molecular biology, quantum theory, medical and health technology.

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Appendices

Appendix 1 – Glossary

Appendix 2 – Diagram Explanation of the Science Standards

Appendix 3 – Scientific Thinking Processes

Appendix 4 – Classical Process Skills

Appendix 5 – Bibliography

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Appendix 1
GLOSSARY

Terms Concerning the Concepts of Standards

Benchmark: A focused statement of what students should know and be able to do in a subject at specified grade levels.

Curriculum: A particular way that content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in the Kansas Science Education Standards can be organized and presented in many ways through different curricula. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards do not constitute a state curriculum. However, a specific science curriculum chosen by a school district will be consistent with these standards only if it is consistent with the premises upon which these standards are based (e.g., science for all, equity, developmental appropriateness).

Equity: Within the context of these standards, equity means that these standards apply to all students, regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.

Example (Clarifying): An illustration of the meaning or intent of an indicator.

Example (Instructional): An activity or specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator.

Indicator: A specific statement of what students should know or be able to do as a result of a daily lesson or unit of study and how they will demonstrate what they have learned.

Standard: A description of what students are expected to know and be able to do in a particular subject.

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Terms Concerning the Science Content of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Believe: To have a firm conviction in the reality of something.

Entropy: A measure of the extent of disorder in a system.

Evolution-Biological: A scientific theory that accounts for present day similarity and diversity among living organisms and changes in non-living entities over time. With respect to living organisms, evolution has two major perspectives: The long-term perspective focuses on the branching of lineages; the short-term perspective centers on changes within lineages. In the long term, evolution is the descent with modification of different lineages from common ancestors. In the short term, evolution is the on-going adaptation of organisms to environmental challenges and changes.

Evolution-Cosmological: With respect to non-living entities, evolution accounts for sequences of natural stages of development. Such sequences are a natural consequence of the characteristics of matter and energy. Stars, planets, solar systems, and galaxies are examples.

Evolution-Macroevolution: Evolution above the species level. The evolution of higher taxa and the product of evolutionary novelties such as new structures (May, 1991). Macroevolution continues the genetic mechanisms of microevolution and adds new considerations of extinction, rate and manner of evolution, competition between evolving units, and other topics relevant to understanding larger scale evolution.

Evolution-Microevolution: The processes (mostly genetics) that operate at the population level: natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and others. These processes may produce speciation, the splitting off of new reproductively isolated species.

Gamete: A germ cell (egg or sperm) carrying half of the organism’s full set of chromosomes, especially a mature germ cell capable of participating in fertilization.

Genetic Drift: Changes in the gene content of a population owing to chance.

Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual, especially as distinguished from its physical appearance.

Hypothesis: A testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.

Incremental: Within the context of these standards, incremental means that scientists slowly and consistently add to the knowledge base of science by means of scientific work.

Inquiry: Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves many process skills. Conducting hands-on science activities does not guarantee inquiry, nor is reading about science incompatible with inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (K-4): Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. However, not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Inquiry in School Science (5-8): Full inquiry involves several parts. Identification of questions that can be answered through scientific investigations. The design and conduct of a scientific investigation. Use of appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data. Development of descriptions, explanations, predictions and models using evidence. Thinking critically and logically to make relationships between evidence and explanations. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (9-12): Full inquiry includes several components. Identification of questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations. The design and conduct of scientific investigations. Use of technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communication. Formulation and revision of scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence. Recognition and analysis of alternative explanations and models. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Law: Laws are descriptive, not prescriptive; laws are statements of observed behavior which is so regular that exceptions are not known. Nature does not follow laws; laws describe how Nature behaves.

Material: The elements, constituents, or substances of which something is composed or can be made,

Operational Definition: The assignment of meaning to a concept or variable in which the activities or operations required to measure it are specified. Operational definitions also may specify the scientist’s activities in measuring or manipulating a variable.

Paradigm: A universally recognized theoretical framework in science that, for a time, provides a model for asking questions and seeking answers through science.

Phenotype: The appearance of an individual, including the biochemical traits expressed internally. The genotype may contain genes that are not expressed in the phenotype.

Principle: Similar to a scientific law. A principle frequently, but not always, is a qualitative or descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances.

Properties: Descriptions of objects based directly on the senses (e.g., hard, soft, smooth) or through extended use of the senses (an atom contains a nucleus).

Qualitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in type or kind.

Quantitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in amount.

Science: The human activity of seeking natural explanations for what we observe in the world around us. These explanations are based on observations, experiments, and logical arguments that adhere to strict empirical standards and a healthy skeptical perspective.

Science Literacy: The scientific knowledge and inquiry skills which enhance a person’s ability to observe objects and events perceptively, reflect on them thoughtfully, and comprehend explanations offered for them.

Technology: A science-based activity in which humans start with initial conditions, then design, build, and implement an intervention that improves the world about us in terms of our original needs (e.g., eye glasses or contacts).

Theory: In science, a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses (e.g., atomic theory, evolutionary theory).

Understand: To possess a meaningful comprehension of a concept or process based on direct or related experiences. Understanding stands in contrast to memorization, where there is only awareness of a term but no grasp of meaning.

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Appendix 2

This diagram illustrates the connections between science standards, how they relate to the unifying concepts, how they are connected with other subject areas, and how they are related to the real world. When teachers use the whole picture as they teach, they provide students with more opportunity to learn, understand, and see the relevance of science, thus promoting not only an informed electorate, but also students who are motivated to be lifelong learners.

Standards

Content standards in the life, physical, and earth/space sciences are often closely related. as are the other standards, and the connections need to be made by teachers to provide a better understanding of science. Inquiry as a standard is in the center of the diagram and shows that it is an integral part of all the others. Science is much more than a body of information, it is a process of discovery. Through the discovery process, students can learn the content of the standards and understand it.

Unifying Concepts

To help show the relationships between the standards, teachers use unifying concepts to provide the umbrella for the integration of science topics. These serve to unite the standards and allow students to grasp the concepts that exist across all of the content standards. Using unifying concepts, students see the linkages across the science areas, and recognize the big picture of science, rather that just one small isolated part.

Connections With Other Subject Areas

Science plays a significant role in other curricular areas as well. For example, students should be able to apply the same knowledge involved in solving an algebraic problem to balancing chemical equations. Students in a science lab could determine how a musical instrument creates its particular sounds. By applying their knowledge of physics, within the unifying concepts, students can solve such musical problems. While the same concepts apply to more than one subject area, education has not traditionally linked the various curricular areas.

Real World Applications

The most effective way to teach students about science is to make it relevant to them by showing that what they learn in the classroom has direct application to the world. For example, students at one Kansas school learned some of their most meaningful science lessons when they teamed with a local corporation. As a part of this school-business partnership, students were brought to the job site and were given the task of creating a specific machine component. Using information provided to them, and generating their own information, they designed, created, and produced the new machine component and demonstrated to company officials how the product worked.

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Appendix 3

Scientific Thinking Process

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Appendix 4

PROCESS SKILLS

(taken from the Kansas Curricular Standards in Science, 1995)

The processes of science are skills that are essential to developing knowledge. concepts. and applications across the curriculum. The processes are often referred to as the “hands-on” approach to science and must be used throughout the program. Each of the terms implies active student participation and has been adapted from the following post-Sputnik science curricula: Elementary Science Study, Science-A Process Approach, Science Curriculum Improvement Study.

Observing: Using the senses to gather information about objects and events in the environment. This skill includes using scientific instruments to extend the range of the human senses and the ability to differentiate relevant from non-relevant events.

Classifying: A method for establishing order on collections of objects or events. Students use classification systems to identify objects or events, to show similarities, differences, and inter-relationships. It is important to realize that all classification systems are subjective and may change as criteria change. The test for a good classification system is whether others can use it.

Measuring: A procedure for using instrument to determine the length, area, volume, mass, or other physical properties of an unknown quantity. It requires the proper use of instruments and the ability to calculate the measured results.

Using Numbers: This skill includes number sense, computation, estimation, spatial sense, and whole number operations.

Communicating: Transmitting the results of observations and experimental procedures to others through the use of such devices as graphs, charts, tables, written descriptions, telecommunications, oral presentations, etc. Communication is fundamental to science, because it is through the exchange of ideas and results of experiments that knowledge is validated by others.

Questioning: The formulation of original questions based on observations and experiences with an event in such a way that one can experiment to seek the answers.

Relating: In the sciences, information about relationships can be descriptive or experimental. Relationships are based on logical arguments that encompass all data. Hypothetical reasoning, deductive reasoning, coordinate graphing, the managing of variables, and the comparison of effects of one variable upon another contribute to understanding the “big” ideas of science.

Inferring: An inference is a tentative explanation that is based on partial observations. Available data are gathered and a generalization is made based on the observed data. These judgments are never absolute and reflect what appears to be the most probable explanation at the time and are subject to change as new data are accumulated.

Predicting: Using previously observed information to make possible decisions about future events. Formulating Hypotheses: Stating a probable outcome for some occurrence based on many observations and inferences. The validity of the hypothesis is determined from testing by one or more experiments.

Identifying and Controlling Variables: Determining which elements in a given investigation will vary or change and which ones will remain constant. Ideally, scientists will attempt to identify all the variables before an investigation is conducted. By manipulating one variable at a time they can determine how that variable will affect the outcome.

Collecting and Interpreting Data: The information collected in order to answer questions is referred to as data. Interpreting data includes using information to make inferences and predictions and then to form hypotheses. This includes developing skills in communicating statistical statements about the data in the form of mode, mean, median, range, and average deviation.

Experimenting: This process is the culmination of all the science process skills. Experimentation often begins with observations which lead to questions that need answers. The steps for proceeding may include formulating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, designing the procedure for conducting tests, implementing the test, collecting and interpreting the data and sometimes changing the hypothesis being tested.

Applying: The process of inventing, creating, problem solving, and determining probabilities are applications of using knowledge to discover further information.

Constructing Models: Developing physical or mental representations to explain an idea, object, or event. Models are usually developed in the basis of acceptable hypotheses.

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Appendix 5

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061 (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy, New York: Oxford University Press.

American Association for the Advancement of Science Project 2061 (1990). Science for All Americans, New York Oxford University Press.

Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project (1996). NSTA Awareness Kit for the National Science Education Standards. Washington, D.C.-. Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Project.

Lowery, L.F. (1989). The Biological Basis of Thinking and Learning, Berkeley, CA. Lawrence Hall of Science.

University of California-Berkeley.

Mayr, E. (1991). One Long Argument. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.

National Academy of Sciences (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Academy of Sciences (1998). Teaching About Evaluation and the Nature of Science. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Science Teachers Association (1996). Pathways to the Science Standards-High School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

National Science Teachers Association (1997). Pathways to the Science Standards-Elementary School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

National Science Teachers Association (1998). Pathways to the Science Standards-Middle School Edition.

Washington, DC: NSTA.

U.S. Department of Education (1997). Attaining Excellence: A Resource Kit for the Third International Science and Mathematics Study.

Washington, DC: U.S. Dept of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

1. Understand: “Understand” does not mandate “belief.” While students may be required to understand some concepts that researchers use to conduct research and solve practical problems, they may accept or reject the scientific concepts presented. This applies particularly where students’ and/or parents’ religion is at odds with science. See Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy of Sciences, 1998, page 59.

Curricular Standards for Science Education

Kansas State Board of Education
Adopted December 7, 1999

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents……………………………………………………… i

Dedication…………………………………………………………………1

Introduction………………………………………………………………. 1

Nature of Science……………………………………………………… 2

Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards … 4

Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards … 6

By the End of Second Grade……………………………………… 8

Standard 1: Science as Inquiry…………………………………… 8

Standard 2: Physical Science……………………………………… 9

Standard 3: Life Science…………………………………………… 10

Standard 4: Earth and Space Science……………………… 11

Standard 5: Technology……………………………………………… 13

Standard 6: Science in Personal and Environmental Perspectives … 14

Standard 7: History and Nature of Science……………… 15

Overview of Science Standards K-4…………………………… 16

By the End of Fourth Grade…………………………………………17

Standard 1: Science as Inquiry…………………………………… 17

Standard 2: Physical Science………………………………………18

Standard 3: Life Science……………………………………………… 20

Standard 4: Earth and Space Science…………………………… 21

Standard 5: Technology………………………………………………… 23

Standard 6: Science in Personal and Environmental Perspectives … 25

Standard 7: History and Nature of Science…………………… 26

Overview of Science Standards 5-8……………………………… 27

By the End of Eighth Grade…………………………………………… 28

Standard 1: Science as Inquiry……………………………………… 28

Standard 2: Physical Science………………………………………… 31

Standard 3: Life Science………………………………………………… 35

Standard 4: Earth and Space Science…………………………… 41

Standard 5: Technology………………………………………………… 46

Standard 6: Science in Personal and Environmental Perspectives … 48

Standard 7: History and Nature of Science…………………… 51

Overview of Science Standards 9-12……………………………… 53

By the End of Twelfth Grade…………………………………………… 54

Standard 1: Science as Inquiry………………………………………… 54

Standard 2A: Physical Science – Chemistry…………………… 56

Standard 2B: Physical Science – Physics………………………… 58

Standard 3: Life Science………………………………………………… 60

Standard 4: Earth and Space Science……………………………. 67

Standard 5: Technology………………………………………………… 69

Standard 6: Science in Personal and Environmental Perspectives …… 70

Standard 7: History and Nature of Science………………… 73

Appendices…………………………………………………………………… 75

Appendix 1 – Glossary……………………………………………………….. 76

Appendix 2 – Classical Process Skills……………………………… 81

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Kansas Science Education Standards

Dedication

The Kansas State Board of Education dedicates the Kansas Science Education Standards to all Kansas students. Our students are the future of Kansas.

 Introduction

Mission Statement

The mission of science education in Kansas is to utilize science as a vehicle to prepare all students as lifelong learners who can use science to make reasoned decisions, contributing to their local, state, and international communities.

Vision Statement

All students, regardless of gender, creed, cultural or ethnic background, future aspirations or interest and motivation in science, should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy. (Adapted from Annenberg/CPM Math and Science Project, 1996, T-7)

The educational system must prepare the citizens of Kansas to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The Kansas Science Standards are intended to enhance the preparation of all students with a focus on excellence and equity.

In seeking to serve all students, these standards give students the opportunity to learn science by experiencing it. To reach the focus on excellence and equity, this experience must include: highly qualified teachers, time on task, and multiple opportunities to learn, utilizing rich and varied learning materials and environments.

Scientific inquiry is an essential ingredient to enhance learning for all students. These standards include a combination of discrete and process skills which are intended to result in increased student knowledge as well as higher order thinking skills. Additionally, it is hoped that these standards lead to a higher student motivation for science and the development of new knowledge.

These standards rest on the premise that science is an active process. Science is something that students and adults do, not something that is done to them. Therefore, these standards are not meant to encourage a single teaching methodology but instead should elicit a variety of effective approaches to learning science.

The Kansas Science Education Standards:

• • Provide criteria that Kansas educators and stakeholders can use to further scientific literacy.
  • Offer a structure that can ultimately lead to improved science education.
  • Advocate that science education must be developmentally appropriate and reflect a systemic, progressive approach throughout the elementary, middle, and high school years.

These standards should not be viewed as a state curriculum nor as requiring a specific local curriculum. Instead, these standards are recommended as a framework for science education for all students in Kansas to assist local districts in developing local curriculum expectations.

Purpose of this Document.

These standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples are designed to assist Kansas educators in selecting and developing local curricula, carrying out instruction, and assessing students’ progress. Also, they will serve as the foundation for the development of state assessments in science. Finally, these standards, benchmarks, indicators, and examples represent high, yet reasonable, expectations for all students.

Students may need further support in and beyond the regular classroom to attain these expectations. Teachers, school administrators, parents, and other community members should be provided with the professional development and leadership resources necessary to enable them to help all students work toward meeting or exceeding these expectations.

Background Information

The original Kansas Curricular Standards for Science were drafted in 1992, approved by the Kansas State Board of Education in 1993, and updated in 1995. Although all of this work occurred prior to the release of the National Science Education Standards in 1996, the original Kansas standards reflect early work on the national standards. At the August, 1997 meeting of the Kansas State Board of Education, the Board directed that revised academic standards should do the following:

1. Bring greater clarity and specificity to what teachers should teach and students should learn at the various grade levels.

2. Build on current state curricular standards.

3. Prioritize the standards to be assessed by the state assessments.

4. Provide guidance on assessment methodologies.

 Nature of Science

Science is the human activity of seeking logical explanations for what we observe in the world around us. Science does so through the use of observation, experimentation, and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism. Scientific explanations are built on observations, hypotheses, and theories. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate observations, inferences, and tested hypotheses. Scientific explanations must meet certain criteria.

They must be logical.

They must be consistent with experimental and/or observational data.

They must be testable by scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation.

They must follow strict rules that govern the repeatability of observations and experiments.

The effect of these criteria is to insure that scientific explanations about the world are open to criticism and that they will be modified or abandoned in favor of new explanations if empirical evidence so warrants. Because all scientific explanations depend on observational and experimental confirmation, all scientific knowledge is, in principle, subject to change as new evidence becomes available. The core theories of science have been subjected to a wide variety of confirmations and have a high degree of reliability within the limits to which they have been tested. In areas where data or understanding are incomplete, new data may lead to changes in current theories or resolve current conflicts. In situations where information is still fragmentary, it is normal for scientific ideas to be incomplete, but this is also where the opportunity for making advances may be greatest. Science has flourished in different regions during different time periods, and in history, diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technological inventions. Changes in scientific knowledge usually occur as gradual modifications, but the scientific enterprise also experiences periods of rapid advancement. The daily work of science and technology results in incremental advances in our understanding of the world about us.

Teaching With Tolerance and Respect

Science studies natural phenomena by formulating explanations that can be tested against the natural world. Some scientific concepts and theories (e.g. blood transfusion, human sexuality, nervous system role in consciousness, cosmological and biological evolution, etc.) may conflict with a student’s religious or cultural beliefs. The goal is to enhance understanding, and a science teacher has a responsibility to enhance students’ understanding of scientific concepts and theories. Compelling student belief is inconsistent with the goal of education. Nothing in science or in any other field of knowledge should be taught dogmatically.

A teacher is an important role model for demonstrating respect and civility, and teachers should not ridicule, belittle or embarrass a student for expressing an alternative view or belief. Teachers model and expect students to practice sensitivity and respect for the various understandings, capabilities, and beliefs of all students. No evidence or analysis of evidence that contradicts a current science theory should be censored.

A Perspective on Changing Emphases

The central nature of inquiry in learning science reflects substantive changes – steps forward – from the previous Kansas Curricular Standards for Science, last updated in 1995. These standards reflect the following changes in emphases, as shown in the chart below:

 Changing Emphases in the Nature of Science Content
and Changing Emphases to Promote Inquiry

Emphasize Less    · Learning which focuses on facts and emphasizes feeding back information.   · Addressing a wide range of science topics.  · Focusing on inquiry as a set of processes in isolation from one another.  · Planning classroom activities that demonstrate a science concept that is already known.  · Confining investigations to a single class period.  · Emphasizing process skills out of context.   · Finding the answer.  · Having individual students or groups of students work with and analyze data but not defending conclusions reached.  · Teachers providing answers to questions about science content.

Emphasize More  · Learning which focuses on understanding the major concepts of science and on developing the ability to make inquiries of a scientific nature.  · Studying a limited number of important science concepts.  · Focusing on inquiry as necessarily interrelated processes.  · Planning classroom activities that raise science questions which lead to investigation and analysis.  · Planning investigations which are carried out over several class periods.  · Using a variety of process skills within the context of inquiry.  · Developing or altering an explanation through applying scientific methods and gathering evidence.  · Having students work in groups to gather and analyze data, draw conclusions from it, and justify those conclusions.   · Students building and communicating scientific explanations.

Regarding science process skills, these standards call for substantive change, for a decrease in emphasis on implementing inquiry as a set of isolated process skills, with a simultaneous increase in emphasis on implementing inquiry as instructional strategies, ideas, and abilities to be learned. Close examination of the chart above reveals that science processes remain important, as they should. But, in these standards, students acquire proficiency in science processes within the context of learning to do scientific inquiry. This requires students to developtheir abilities to think scientifically.

  Organization of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Each standard in the main body of the document contains a series of benchmarks, which describe what students should know and be able to do at the end of a certain point in their education (e.g., grade 2, 4, 8, 10). Each benchmark contains a series of indicators, which identify what it means for students to meet a benchmark. Indicators are frequently followed by examples, which are specific, concrete ideas or illustrations of what is intended by the indicator.

Standards

There are seven standards for science. These standards are general statements of what students should know, understand, and be able to do in the natural sciences over the course of their K-12 education. The seven standards are interwoven ideas, not separate entities; thus, they should be taught as interwoven ideas, not as separate entities. These standards are clustered for grade levels K-2, 3-4, 5-8, and 9-12.

• Science as Inquiry

Inquiry is central to science learning and to the science process. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, identify faulty reasoning and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop an understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge. Historically, many innovations in science require that the currently popular theories be challenged and then changed. Therefore, the skills learned in inquiry should not be limited to the experiments that the students do in the classroom. In addition, students will learn to identify the assumptions that underlie the hypotheses, theories and laws taught to them in the classroom.

• Physical Science

Physical science encompasses the traditional disciplines of physics and chemistry. Students should develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and force, velocity, structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interaction of energy and matter and their applications in the other sciences such as biology, medicine and earth science.

• Life Science

Students will develop an understanding of biological concepts. Students should learn: the characteristics of life, the needs of living organisms, their life cycles, their habitats, the molecular basis of heredity, and reproduction. They should also learn how organisms interact with their environment, energy transfer from the sun and through the environmental system, the chemical basis for life and behavior of organisms. Students should be able to apply process skills to explore and demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, heredity, regulation and behavior, and ecosystems.

Life Science is interactive with Physical Science, Earth and Space Science and Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationship among these standards.

• Earth and Space Science

While Earth and Space Science encompasses the traditional disciplines of geology and astronomy and the basic subject matter of these disciplines will be taught, it also includes interactive elements with the Life Sciences, the Physical Sciences, Technology and the environment. Students will develop an understanding of the Earth system, the solar system and the cosmos.

• Technology

Technology encompasses the advances made by man to improve his condition and to develop the tools he needs to accomplish his goals.

• Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives

Students should develop an appreciation and understanding of personal and community health, natural resources, natural and human-induced hazards and improvements, and technological implications in quality of life. All students should be able to research and assess prevailing environmental and personal health issues and develop a rational understanding of man’s relationship to the environment.

• History and Nature of Science

Understanding the history, nature of science and limitations of science is fundamental to scientific learning. Students will learn to distinguish between science and other forms of knowledge or beliefs such as philosophy and religion. Science uses observation, experimentation, induction and deduction, and experimental, observational and statistical verification strategies in formulating and testing the validity of explanations for the behavior of the world around us. These explanations ought to be testable, repeatable, falsifiable, open to criticism and not based upon authority. It is also important that students learn to distinguish between scientific information (data), scientific explanations (hypotheses, theories, laws, principles, etc.) and the scientific method (the process of arriving at and verifying scientific explanations). Students should learn the applications and limits of science and the inductive and deductive reasoning processes that underlie science.

Benchmarks

These are specific statements of what students should know and be able to do at a specified point in their schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure students’ progress toward meeting a standard. In these standards, benchmarks are defined for grades 2, 4, 8, and 10.

Indicators

These are statements of the knowledge or skills which students demonstrate in order to meet a benchmark. Indicators are critical to understanding the standards and benchmarks and are to be met by all students. The indicators listed under each benchmark are not listed in priority order, nor should the list be considered as all-inclusive. Moreover, the list of examples under each indicator should be considered as representative but not as comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Examples

Two kinds of examples are presented. An instructional example offers an activity or a specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator. A clarifying example provides an illustration of the meaning or intent of an indicator. Like the indicators themselves, examples are considered to be representative but not comprehensive or all-inclusive.

Keying the Standards to the Kansas Science Assessment

Readers should notice that selected indicators beneath standards have a box containing a number immediately to the left of the number of the indicator. The presence of such an internally numbered box beside an indicator means that the indicator has been designated for emphasis on the new Kansas Science Assessment, which will be developed to assess these standards. Thus, a box with the number “4” inside represents an indicator to be emphasized on the Grade 4 Kansas Science Assessment. Similarly, boxes with the numbers “7” or “10” inside represent indicators to be emphasized on the Grade 7 and Grade 10 Kansas Science Assessments, respectively. None of the indicators designated by a boxed-10 will assume competency through the second semester of grade 10. Finally, readers should know that the number represents the first point at which a particular indicator will be assessed. The same indicator may also be included on later assessments.

  Unifying Concepts and Processes in the Kansas Science Education Standards

Science is traditionally a discipline-centered activity; however, broad, unifying concepts and processes exist which cut across the traditional disciplines of science. Four such concepts and processes, which are named and described below, have been embedded within and across the seven standards. These broad unifying concepts and processes complement the analytic, more discipline-based perspectives presented in the other content standards. Moreover, they provide students with productive and insightful ways of thinking about integrating a range of basic ideas that explain the world about us, including what occurs naturally as well as what is built by humans through science and technology. The embedded unifying concepts and processes named and described below are a subset of the many unifying ideas in science and technology. These were selected from the National Science Education Standards because they provide connections between and among traditional scientific disciplines, are fundamental and comprehensive, are understandable and usable by people who will implement science programs, and can be expressed and experienced in a developmentally appropriate manner during K-12 science education.

Systems, Order, and Organization: The world about us is complex; it is too enormous and complex to investigate and understand as a whole. For the convenience of investigation, scientist and students define small portions for study. These small portions can be systems. A system can be described as an organized group of related objects or parts that form the whole. Systems are described and organized into open, closed, or isolated processes. Systems can consist of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, ideas, numbers, transportation, and education. Systems have resources, components, and boundaries. Systems have flow (input and output) and provide feedback. Order is described as behavior traits of matter, objects, organisms, or events in the universe. Order can be described statistically. Probability is the prediction and certainty that scientists and students can assign the determined events or experiments in a defined time and space. Types and levels of organizations categorize thought about the world that can be useful. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and classification of organisms. Physical systems are described at different levels of organization, such as fundamental particle, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organization. Examples of living systems levels of organization include cells, tissue, organs, organisms, populations, and communities.

Evidence, Models, and Explanation: Evidence consists of observations and empirical data which investigators may utilize and evaluate to make scientific conclusions. Models are schemes and structures that correspond to objects and events and enable an investigator to explain and predict. Models also help investigators understand how things work. Examples of models are physical objects, plans, mental constructs, mathematical equations, and computer-based simulations. Scientific explanations are made based on scientific knowledge and new evidence obtained through observations and experiments. “Hypothesis, ” “how, ” “model, ” “principle, ” “theory, ” and “paradigm” are used to describe scientific explanations.

Constancy, Change, and Measurement: Change is the process of becoming different. Change might occur in properties of materials, positions of objects, motion, and system form and function. Change in some properties of objects and processes is characterized by constancy (electron charge, speed of light, etc.) Constancy refers to rate, scale, and patterns of change.

Equilibrium refers to the off-setting forces and changes that occur in opposite directions. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is as randomly and uniformly distributed as possible. Homeostasis, balance, and steady state are descriptors of equilibrium. Changes can be quantified and measured. Evidence of change and formulation of explanations may be made based on qualified data. Different scales or measurement systems are utilized for various purposes. The metric system is commonly used in science. Science relies on mathematics to accurately measure change and equilibrium. Important scientific knowledge is to know and understand when to use various measurement systems.

Form and Function: Form and function refer to complementary aspects of objects, systems, or organisms. Form most generally relates to the use, function, or operation of an object, system, or organism. Form and function can explain each other.

At the beginning of the 4^th (p. 17), 8^th (p. 28), and 12^th (p. 54) grade standards, the overview of science content for that section within the seven standards is connected to the unifying concepts and processes.

By The End Of SECOND GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to develop an understanding of inquiry. In elementary grades, students begin to develop the physical and intellectual abilities of scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: All students will be involved in activities that will develop skills necessary to do scientific inquiries. These activities will involve asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. However, not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify characteristics of objects.

Example: States characteristics of leaves, shells, water, and air.

4 2. Classify and arrange groups of objects by a variety of characteristics.

Example: Group seeds by color, texture, size; group objects by whether they float or sink; group rocks by texture, color, and hardness.

4 3. Use appropriate materials and tools to collect information.

Example: Use magnifiers, balances, scales, thermometers, measuring cups, and spoons when engaged in investigations.

4. Ask and answer questions about objects, organisms, and events in their environment.

Example: The student may ask, “What must I do to balance a pencil, ruler, or piece of paper on my finger?”

5. Describe an observation orally or pictorially.

Example: Draw pictures of plant growth on a daily basis; note color, number of leaves.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students the opportunity to explore the world by observing and manipulating common objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects.

All students will have opportunities to compare, describe, and sort objects.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using age-appropriate tools and materials.

Example: Compare and contrast size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects.

4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Compare and contrast objects made from wood, metal, and cloth.

4 3. Separate or sort a group of objects or materials by characteristics.

Example: Compare and contrast the shape, size, weight, and color of objects.

4 4. Compare and contrast solids and liquids.

Example: Compare and contrast the properties of water with the properties of wood.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to develop an understanding of biological concepts.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of living things.

Through direct experiences, students will observe living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that living things need air, water, and food.

Example: What children need…what plants need…what animals need.

2. Observe life cycles of different living things.

Example: Observe butterflies, mealworms, plants, and humans.

3. Observe living things in various environments.

Example: Observe classroom plants; take nature walks in your own area and various field trips; observe terrariums and aquariums.

4 4. Examine the characteristics of living things.

Example: Butterflies have wings. Plants may have leaves and roots. People have skin and hair.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to observe closely the objects and materials in their environment.

Benchmark 1: All students will describe properties of Earth materials.

Earth materials may include rock, soil, air, and water.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Group Earth materials.

Example: Describe and compare soils by color and texture, sort pebbles and rocks by size, shape, and color.

4 2. Describe where Earth materials are found.

Example: Observe Earth materials around the playground, on a field trip, or in their own yard.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and compare objects in the sky.

The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Distinguish between man-made and natural objects in the sky.

Example: Compare birds to airplanes.

2. Recognize sun, moon, and stars.

Example: Observe day and night sky regularly.

4 3. Describe that the sun provides light and warmth.

Example: Feel heat from the sun on the face and skin. Observe shadows.

Benchmark 3: All students will describe changes in weather.

Weather includes snow, rain, sleet, wind, and violent storms.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe changes in the weather from day to day.

Example: Draw pictures.

2. Record weather changes daily.

Example: Use weather charts, calendars, and logs to record daily weather.

3. Discuss weather safety procedures.

Example: Practice tornado drill procedures; talk about the dangers of lightning and flooding.

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to have a variety of educational experiences that involve science and technology.

Benchmark 1: All students will use technology to learn about the world around them.

Students will use software and other technological resources to discover the world around them.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Explore the way things work.

Example: Observe the inner workings of non-working toys, clocks, telephones, toasters, music boxes.

4 2. Experience science through technology.

Example: Use science software programs, balances, thermometers, hand lenses, and bug viewers.

3. Experience science through technology in the kitchen.

Example: Explore simple machines, i.e., wedge, lever, and wheel, and their combinations, ramp, screw, pulley, roller, and axle from common kitchen items, such as sausage grinder and rolling pins. Identify the simple machines and discover the way they make tasks easier to perform.

Example: try to find how many machines are built into a kitchen device like a hand powered egg beater – a crank or lever.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to have a variety of experiences that provide initial understandings for various science-related personal and environmental challenges.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will demonstrate responsibility for their own health.

Health encompasses safety, personal hygiene, exercise, and nutrition.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discuss that safety and security are basic human needs.

Example: Discuss the need to obey traffic signals, the use of crosswalks, and the danger of talking to strangers.

2. Engage in personal care.

Example: Practice washing hands and brushing teeth. Discuss clothing. Discuss personal hygiene.

3. Discuss healthy foods.

Example: Cut out pictures of foods and sort into healthy and not healthy groups.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in grades K-2 will allow all students to experience scientific inquiry and learn about people from history.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will know they practice science.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Be involved in explorations that make them wonder and know that they are practicing science.

Example: Observe what happens when you place a banana or an orange (with and without the skin) or a crayon in water. Observe what happens when you hold an M&M, a chocolate chip, or a raisin in your hand. Note the changes. Observe what happens when you rub your hands together very fast.

2. Use technology to learn about people in science.

Example: Read short stories, and view films or videos. Invite parents who are involved in science as guest speakers.

   By The End Of FOURTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards K-4

<TBODY>	Systems, Order & Organization	Evidence, Models & Explanations	Change, Constancy, & Measurement	Form & Function
SCIENCE AS INQUIRY · Abilities to do, understand, and participate in scientific study		X	X
PHYSICAL SCIENCE  · Characteristics of objects · Location and movement of objects · Electricity and magnetism · Sound	X		X X   X X	X     X X

LIFE SCIENCE  · Relationship of organisms to their environment · Life cycles of living things

X X

X   X

X   X

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE  · Earth’s materials · Bodies in the sky · Dynamic nature of Earth and sky

X

X X X

X   X

TECHNOLOGY · Problem solving skills · Apply understandings of science and technology · Abilities to distinguish between natural and human-made objects

X

X X

X X   X

X X   X

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES   · Personal health   · Changes in surroundings

X   X

X   X

X

HISTORY & NATURE of SCIENCE · People practice science

X

By The End Of FOURTH GRADE

STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to experience science as full inquiry. Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop the skills necessary to do full inquiry. However, not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequences of these stages be followed. Students can design investigations to try things to see what happens.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Ask questions that they can answer by investigating.

Example: Will oil and water mix? How much water will a sponge hold?

4 2. Plan and do a simple experiment.

Example: Design a test of the wet strength of paper towels; experiment with plant growth; experiment to find ways to prevent soil erosion.

4 3. Employ appropriate equipment and tools to gather data.

Example: Use a balance to find the mass of the wet paper towel, meter sticks to measure length of the room, our height, arm span.

4 4. Begin developing the abilities to communicate, critique, and analyze their own investigations and interpret the work of other students.

Example: Describe investigations with pictures, written language, oral presentations.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to compare, describe, and sort as they begin to form explanations of the world.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop skills to describe objects.

Through observation, manipulation, and classification of common objects, children reflect on the similarities and differences of the objects.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using appropriate tools.

Example: Observe and record the size, weight, shape, color, and temperature of objects using balances, thermometers, and other measurement tools.

4 2. Classify objects by the materials from which they are made.

Example: Group a set of objects by the materials from which they are made.

4 3. Describe objects by more than one property.

Example: Observe that an object could be hard, round, and rough.

4 4. Observe and record how one object reacts with another object or substance.

Example: Mix baking soda and vinegar and record observations.

4 5. Recognize and describe the differences between solids and liquids.

Example: Observe differences between ice as a solid and water as a liquid.

Benchmark 2: All students will describe the movement of objects.

When students describe and manipulate objects, they will observe the position and movement of objects.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Move objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, spinning, dropping, and rolling, and describe the movement.

Example: Spin a top; roll a ball.

4 2. Describe locations of objects.

Example: Describe locations as up, down, in front, or behind.

Benchmark 3: All students will recognize and demonstrate what makes sounds.

The concept of sound is very abstract. However, by investigating a variety of sounds made by common objects, students can form a connection between sounds the objects make and the materials from which the objects are made. Plastic objects make a different sound than do wooden objects.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Discriminate between sounds made by different objects.

Example: Listen and compare the sounds made by drums and other musical instruments, such as cans, gourds, plastic spoons, pennies, and plastic disks.

Benchmark 4: All students will experiment with electricity and magnetism. Repeated activities involving simple electrical circuits can help students develop the concept that electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electric current can pass. Magnets attract and repel each other and certain kinds of other materials.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Demonstrate that magnets attract and repel.

4 2. Design a simple experiment to determine whether various objects will be attracted to magnets.

4 3. Construct a simple circuit.

Example: Use a battery, bulb, and wire to light a bulb, make a motor run, produce sound, or make an electromagnet.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to build an understanding of biological concepts through direct experience with living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop a knowledge of organisms in their environments.

The study of organisms should include observations and interactions within the natural world of the child.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare and contrast structural characteristics and functions of different organisms.

Example: Compare the structures for movement of a mealworm to the structures for movement of a guppy. Compare the leaf structures of a sprouted bean seed to the leaf structures of a corn seed.

4 2. Compare basic needs of different organisms in their environments.

Example: Compare the basic needs of a guinea pig to the basic needs of a tree.

3. Discuss ways humans and other organisms use their senses in their environments.

Example: Compare how people and other living organisms get food, seek shelter, and defend themselves.

Benchmark 2: All students will observe and illustrate the life cycles of various organisms.

Plants and animals have life cycles that include being born, developing into adults, reproducing, and eventually dying.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and ask questions about the life cycles of various organisms.

Example: Plant a seed and observe and record its growth. Observe and record the changes of an insect as it develops from birth to adult.

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to observe closely the objects, materials, and changes in their environment, note their properties, distinguish one from another, and develop their own explanations of how things become the way they are.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of rocks, soil, and water, as well as other components of Earth.

Playgrounds or parks are convenient study sites to observe.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe a variety of Earth materials in their environment.

Example: Observe rocks, soil, sand, air, and water.

4 2. Collect, observe, and become aware of properties of various soils.

Example: Students could bring in samples of soils from their surroundings and observe color, texture, and reaction to water.

4 3. Experiment with a variety of soils.

Example: By planting seeds in a variety of soil samples, students can compare the effect of different soils on plant growth.

4 4. Describe properties of many different kinds of rocks.

Example: Bring rocks from the playground, immerse in water, and observe color, texture, and reaction to liquids.

5. Observe fossils and discuss how fossils provide evidence of plants and animals that lived in the past.

Example: Provide a variety of fossils for observation. Discuss how fossils are formed; how long it takes an organism to decay or to be scavenged; how long it takes an organism to be fossilized; whether or not all fossilized organisms were dead at the time of burial (i.e. closed clam fossils).

Benchmark 2: All students will describe and compare characteristics of objects that move through the sky.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Observe the moon and stars.

Example: Sketch the position of the moon in relation to a tree, rooftop, or building.

2. Observe and compare the length of shadows.

Example: Students can observe the movement of an object’s shadow during the course of a day, or construct simple sundials.

4 3. Discuss that the sun provides light and heat to maintain the temperature of the Earth.

Example: When on the playground and the sun goes behind a cloud, discuss why it seems cooler.

Benchmark 3: All students will develop skills necessary to describe changes in the Earth and weather.

If the students revisit a study site regularly, they will develop an understanding that the Earth’s surface and weather are constantly changing.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Describe changes in the surface of the Earth.

Example: Students will observe erosion and changes in plant growth at a study site.

4 2. Observe, describe, and record daily and seasonal weather changes.

Example: Record weather observations.

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to have a variety of educational experiences that involve science and technology. They will begin to understand the design process, as well as develop the ability to solve simple design problems that are appropriately challenging for their developmental level.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop appropriate problem solving skills.

Problem solving should occur within the setting of the home and school.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Identify a simple problem; design an approach/plan; implement the plan; solve and check for reasonableness; and communicate the results.

Example: Compare and contrast two types of string to see which is best for lifting different objects; design the best paper airplane, helicopter, or terrarium; design a simple system to hold two objects together.

Benchmark 2: All students will expand and use their understanding of science and technology.

Children can examine technological products (such as zippers, snaps, arches, and cars) to learn how the scientific process can lead to solutions for everyday problems.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that science is a way of investigating questions about their world.

Example: Discuss how you think a zipper works; discuss how you think a can opener works.

4 2. Invent a product to solve problems.

Example: Invent a new use for old products; potato masher , strainer, carrot peeler. Use a juice can to invent something useful.

3. Work together to solve problems.

Example: Share ideas about solving a problem.

4. Develop an awareness that women and men of all ages, backgrounds, and ethnic groups engage in a variety of scientific and technological work.

Example: Interview parents and other community and school workers.

 5. Investigate how scientists use tools to observe.

Example: Engage in research on the Internet; interview the weatherman; conduct research in the library; call or visit a laboratory.

Benchmark 3: All students will discriminate between natural objects and those made by people.

Some objects occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.

Indicators: The student will:

4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort human-made versus natural objects.

Example: Compare and contrast real flowers to silk flowers.

4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and human-made objects.

Example: Use a magnifier when observing objects.

3. Ask questions about natural or human-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers.

Example: The teacher will ask, “Is this a human-made object? Why do you think so?” When observing a natural or human-made object, the child will be asked the reasoning behind his/her answer.

4. Investigate the various systems that connect utilities to the student’s home: Electricity, Gas, Water, Sanitation, Telecommunication, etc. Find the source or entry of the system and points where the utility can be accessed. Find the places where the system is controlled.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to demonstrate personal health and environmental practices, and to have a variety of experiences that provide initial understanding for various science-related personal and environmental challenges.

This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth & space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of personal health.

Personal health involves physical and mental well being, including hygienic practices, and self-respect.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Discuss that safety involves freedom from danger, risk, or injury.

Example: Classroom discussions could include bike safety, water safety,weather safety, sun protection.

2. Exhibit some responsibility for their own health.

Example: Use recommended dental hygiene techniques, bathe, and exercise.

4 3. Discuss that various foods contribute to health.

Example: Read and compare nutrition information found on labels; discuss healthy foods; make a healthy snack.

Benchmark 2: All students will demonstrate an awareness of changes in the environment.

Through classroom discussions, students can begin to recognize pollution as an environmental issue, scarcity as a resource issue, and crowded classrooms or schools as a population issue.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Define pollution.

Example: Take a pollution walk, gathering examples of litter and trash.

4 2. Develop personal actions to solve pollution problems in and around the neighborhood.

Example: After the pollution walk, children could work in groups to solve pollution problems they observed.

3. Practice reducing, reusing, and recycling.

Example: Present the problem that paper is being wasted in the classroom. Students could meet and form a plan to resolve this problem.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 3-4 will allow all students to experience some things about scientific inquiry and learn about people from history.

Experiences of investigating and thinking about explanations, not memorization, will provide fundamental ideas about the history and nature of science. This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science, and Earth and space science standards.

Benchmark 1: All students will develop an awareness that people practice science.

People have practiced science and technology for a long time. Children and adults can derive great pleasure from doing science. They can investigate, construct, and experience science. Individuals, as well as groups of students, can conduct investigations.

Indicators: The students will:

4 1. Ask a question that can be answered by scientific experimenting and do an experiment that will answer the question. Then repeat the experiment to see if they can get the same results.

Example: What will happen if a plant is under light for different lengths of time? What will happen if the length or width of the wing of a paper airplane is changed? What will happen if vinegar is dropped on different kinds of rocks?

Benchmark 2: Determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method.

Indicators: The student will:

1. Gather data and develop an explanation about the results of an experiment. Tell what is data, what is the explanation, and what was the method.

Example: The amount of growth of a plant is the data. An explanation might be that more light and the nature of the plant caused more growth, and the scientific method is doing the repeatable and testable experiment and developing the explanation.

Benchmark 3: Learn about people in science.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Learn about the contributions people have made to science.

Example: Short stories, films, videos, and speakers.

 By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE

 Overview of Science Standards 5-8

<TBODY>

Systems, Order & Organization

Evidence, Models & Explanations

Change, Constancy, & Measurement

Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY   · Abilities to conduct scientific investigation · Designing investigations · Understanding scientific achievement

X X  X

X X  X

PHYSICAL SCIENCE   · Characteristics of matter · Changes in matter   · Force and motion · Energy transfer

X

X

X  X   X  X

X X

LIFE SCIENCE   · Structure and function of organisms   · Reproduction and inheritance · Behavior and regulation · Ecosystems and populations · Adaptations of diversity andorganisms

X   X   X   X   X

X   X   X

X   X   X   X

X   X   X   X   X

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE   · Structure of the Earth system · Past and present Earth processes · Components of the solar system · Motion and forces which affect Earth phenomena

X   X   X

X  X   X   X

X  X   X   X

X  X   X   X

TECHNOLOGY   · Technological problem-solving   · Understand how science relates to technology

X

X   X

X

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES  · Personal health   · Populations, resources, and environments · Risks and causes of natural hazards

X  X

X   X   X

X   X   X

X

HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE   · Scientific habits of mind · Contributions to science throughout history

X  X

   By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE

 STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to develop the abilities to do scientific inquiry, be able to demonstrate how scientific inquiry is applied, and develop understandings about scientific inquiry.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities necessary to do the processes of scientific inquiry.

Students can develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, questions, and a design which identifies and controls variables to gather evidence to formulate an answer to the original question, given appropriate curriculum and adequate instruction. Students are to be provided opportunities to engage in full and partial inquiries in order to develop the skills of inquiry.

Teachers help students succeed by showing how to choose interesting questions, checking designs, giving examples of good experimental strategies and instructing in the proper use of instruments and technology. Students at the middle level need special guidance in using evidence to build explanations, inference, and models, and guidance to think critically and logically and to see the relationships between evidence and explanations.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations.

Example: Explore properties and phenomena of materials, such as a balloon, string, straw, and tape. Students explore properties and phenomena and generate questions to investigate.

7 2. Design and do scientific inquiry.

Example: Students design and conduct an investigation on the question, “Which paper towel absorbs the most water?” Materials include different kinds of paper towels, water, and a measuring cup. Components of the investigation should include background and hypothesis, identification of independent variable, dependent variable, constants, list of materials, procedures, collection and analysis of data, and conclusions.

7 3. Use appropriate tools, mathematics, technologies, and methods to gather, analyze and interpret data.

Example: Given an investigative question, students determine what to measure and how to measure, and display their results in a graph or other graphic format.

7 4. Think critically to make the relationships between evidence and logical conclusions.

Example: Students check data to determine: Was the question answered? Was the hypothesis supported/not supported? Did this design work? How could this experiment be improved? What other questions could be investigated?

7 5. Apply mathematical reasoning to scientific inquiry.

Example: Look for patterns from the mean of multiple trials, such as rate of dissolving relative to different temperatures. Use observations for inductive and deductive reasoning, such as explaining a person’s energy level after a change in eating habits (e.g., use Likert-type scale). State relationships in data, such as variables, which vary directly or inversely.

7 6. Present a report of the investigation so that others understand it and can replicate the design.

Benchmark 2: The students will apply different kinds of investigations to different kinds of questions.

Investigation strategies include observation, specimen collection, experimentation, discovery, and modeling. Instructional activities of scientific inquiry need to engage students in identifying and shaping questions for investigations. Different kinds of investigations suggest different kinds of questions.

To help focus, students need to frame questions such as “What do we want to find out?” “How can we make the most accurate observations?” “If we do this, then what do we expect to happen?” Students need instruction to develop the ability to refine and refocus broad and ill-defined questions.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative investigation.

Example: While observing a decomposing compost pile, how could you collect quantitative (numerical, measurable) data? How could you collect qualitative (descriptive) data? What is a quantitative question? (e.g., Is the temperature constant throughout the compost pile?) What is a qualitative question? (e.g., Does the color of the compost pile change over time?)

Example: Each student designs a question to investigate. Class analyzes all questions to classify as qualitative or quantitative.

After reading a science news article, identify variables and write a qualitative and/or quantitative investigative question related to the topic of the article.

2. Develop questions and adapt the inquiry process to guide an investigation.

Example: Adapt an existing lab or activity to: write a different question, identify another variable, and/or adapt the procedure to guide a new investigation.

Benchmark 3: The students will analyze how science advances through new ideas, scientific investigations, skepticism, and examining evidence of varied explanations.

Scientific investigations usually create opportunities for further study. Science advances because of skepticism. Asking questions about scientific explanations is part of inquiry. Proposed explanations are evaluated by examining all the evidence and providing alternatives.

Much time can be spent asking students to scrutinize evidence and explanations, but to develop critical thinking skills students must be allowed this time. Data that is carefully recorded and communicated can be reviewed and revisited frequently providing insights beyond the original investigative period. This teaching and learning strategy allows students to discuss, debate, question, explain, clarify, compare, and propose new thinking through social discourse. Students will apply this strategy to their own investigations and to scientific theories.

Indicators: The students will:

1. After doing an investigation, generate alternative methods of investigation and/or further questions for inquiry.

Example: Ask “What would happen if..?” questions to generate new ideas for investigation.

10 2. Determine evidence which supports or contradicts a scientific breakthrough.

Example: Locate a scientific breakthrough [such as a Hubble discovery] in a newspaper or science magazine and analyze evidence. Is it a reasonable conclusion?

3. Identify faulty reasoning of conclusions which go beyond evidence and/or are not supported by data in a current scientific hypothesis or theory.

Example: Analyze hypotheses about characteristics of and extinction of dinosaurs. Identify the assumptions behind the hypothesis and show the weaknesses in the reasoning that led to the hypothesis.

4. Suggest alternative scientific hypotheses or theories to current scientific hypotheses or theories.

Example: At least some stratified rocks may have been laid down quickly, such as Mount Etna in Italy or Mount St. Helens in Washington state.

STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to develop an understanding of physical science including: characteristics of matter, changes in matter, force and motion, and energy transfer.

Benchmark 1: The students will observe, compare, and classify properties of matter.

Substances have characteristic properties. Substances often are placed in categories if they react or act in similar ways. An example of a category is metals. There are more than 100 known elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds, which account for the living and non-living substances we encounter. Middle level students have the capability of understanding relationships among properties of matter. For example, they are able to understand that density is a ratio of mass to volume, boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure, and solubility is dependent on pressure and temperature.

These relationships are developed by concrete activities that involve hands-on manipulation of apparatuses, making quantitative measurements, and interpreting data using graphs.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Identify and communicate properties of matter, including phases of matter, boiling point, solubility, and density.

Example: Measure and graph the boiling point temperatures for several different liquids. Graph the cooling curve of a freezing ice cream mixture. Observe substances that dissolve (sugar) and substances that do not dissolve (sand).

2. Using the characteristic properties of each original substance, distinguish components of various types of mixtures.

Example: Separate alcohol and water using distillation. Separate sand, iron filings, and salt using a magnet and dissolving in water. Observe properties of kitchen powders (baking soda, salt, sugar, flour). Mix in various combinations, then identify by properties.

3. Categorize chemicals to develop an understanding of properties.

Example: Create operational definitions of metals and nonmetals and classify by observable chemical and physical properties.

Benchmark 2: The students will observe, measure, infer, and classify changes in properties of matter.

Matter chemically reacts in predictable ways with other matter to form new compounds with different properties. Middle level students have the capability of inferring characteristics that are not directly observable and stating their reasons for their inferences. Students need opportunities to form relationships between what they can see and inferences of characteristics of matter.

We cannot always see the products of chemical reactions, so the teacher can provide opportunities for the student to measure reactants and products to build the concept of conservation of mass. “Is mass lost when baking soda (solid) and vinegar (liquid) react to produce a gas?” “How could we design an experiment which would (safely) contain the reaction in a closed container in order to measure the materials before and after the reaction?” Students need to engage in activities that lead to these understandings.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Measure and graph the effects of temperature on matter.

Example: Change water from solid to liquid to gas using heat. Measure and graph temperature changes. Observe changes in volume occupied.

10 2. Understand that total mass is conserved in chemical reactions.

Example: Measure the mass of an Alka Seltzer tablet, water, and a container with a lid. Then drop in tablet, close tightly, and measure the mass after the reaction.

10 3. Understand the relationship of elements to compounds.

Example: Draw a diagram to show how different compounds are composed of elements in various combinations.

Benchmark 3: The students will investigate motion and forces.

All matter is subjected to forces that affect its position and motion. Relating motions to direction, amount of force, and/or speed allows students to graphically represent data for making comparisons. A moving object that is not being subjected to a force will continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed. The principle of inertia helps to explain many events such as sports actions, household accidents, and space walks. If more than one force acts upon an object moving along a straight line, the forces may reinforce each other or cancel each other out, depending on their direction and magnitude.

Students experience forces and motions in their daily lives when kicking balls, riding in a car, and walking on ice. Teachers should provide hands-on opportunities for students to experience these physical principles. The forces acting on natural and human-made structures can be analyzed using computer simulations, physical models, and games such as pool, soccer, bowling, and marbles.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Describe motion of an object (position, direction of motion, speed, potential and kinetic energy).

Example: Follow the path of a toy car down a ramp. The ramp is first covered with tile and then with sandpaper. Consider the total energy (kinetic and potential) at the top of the ramp then at the bottom of it. Note the conversion of potential to kinetic energy. Trace the force, direction, and speed of a baseball, from leaving the pitcher’s hand and returning back to the pitcher through one of many possible paths. What is the source of force that causes a curve ball to move sideways in midflight?

7 2. Measure motion and represent data in a graph.

Example: Roll a marble down a ramp. Make adjustments to the board or to the marble’s position in order to hit a target located on the floor. Measure and graph the results.

10 3. Demonstrate an understanding that an object not being subjected to a force will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line (Law of Inertia).

Example: Place a small object on a rolling toy vehicle; stop the vehicle

abruptly; observe the motion of the small object. Relate to personal experience – stopping rapidly in a car.

10 4. Demonstrate and mathematically communicate that unbalanced forces will cause changes in the speed or direction of an object’s motion.

Example: With a ping-pong ball and 2 straws, investigate the effects of the force of air through two straws on the ping-pong ball with the straws at the same side of ball, on opposite sides, and at other angles. Illustrate results with vectors (force arrows).

10 5. Understand that a force (e.g., gravity and friction) is a push or a pull and investigate force variables.

Example: Explore the variables of (wheel and ramp) surfaces that would allow a powered car to overcome the forces of gravity and friction to climb an inclined plane.

Benchmark 4: The students will understand and demonstrate the transfer of energy.

Energy forms, such as heat, light, electricity, mechanical (motion), sound, and chemical energy are properties of substances. Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for life systems while heat convection currents deep within the Earth are an energy source for gradually shaping the Earth’s surface. Energy cycles through physical and living systems. Energy can be measured and predictions can be made based on these measurements.

Students can explore light energy using lenses and mirrors, then connect with real life applications such as cameras, eyeglasses, telescopes, and bar code scanners. Students connect the importance of energy transfer with sources of energy for their homes, such as chemical, nuclear, solar, and mechanical sources. Teachers provide opportunities for students to explore and experience energy forms, energy transfers, and make measurements to describe relationships.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Understand that energy can be transferred from one form to another, including mechanical heat, light, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.

Example: Design an energy transfer device. Use various forms of energy. The device should accomplish a simple task such as popping a balloon. Explore sound waves using a spring.

7 2. Sequence the transmission of energy through various real life systems.

Example: Draw a chart of energy flow through a telephone from the caller’s voice to the listener’s ear.

7 3. Observe and communicate how light interacts with matter: transmitted, reflected, refracted, absorbed.

Example: Classify classroom objects as to how they interact with light: a window transmits; black paper absorbs; a projector lens refracts; a mirror reflects.

7 4. Understand that heat energy can be transferred from hot to cold by radiation, convection, and conduction.

Example: Add colored warm water to cool water. Observe convection. Measure and graph temperature over time.

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to apply scientific process skills to investigate and understand the structure and function of organisms, reproduction and inheritance, behavior and regulation, ecosystems and populations, and adaptations and diversity of organisms.

Benchmark 1: The students will model structures of organisms and relate functions to the structures.

Living things at all levels of organization demonstrate the complimentary nature of structure and function. Disease is a breakdown in structure or function of an organism. It is useful for middle level students to think of life as being organized from simple to complex, such as a complex organ system includes simpler structures. Understanding the structure and function of a cell can help explain what is happening in more complex systems. Students must also understand how parts relate to the whole, such as each structure is distinct and has a set of functions that serve the whole.

Teachers can help students understand this organization of life by comparing and contrasting the levels of organization in both plants and animals. Teachers reinforce understanding of the cellular nature of life by providing opportunities to observe live cultures, such as pond water; creating models of cells; and using the Internet to observe and describe electron micrographs. Early adolescence is an ideal time to investigate the human body systems as an example of relating structure and function of parts to the whole.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Relate the structure of cells, organs, tissues, organ systems, and whole organisms to their functions.

Example: Identify human body organs and characteristics. Then relate their characteristics to function. Map human body systems, research their functions and show how each supports the health of the human body. Relate an organism’s structure to how it works (long neck for reaching leaves on a tree).

7 2. Compare and contrast organisms composed of single cells with organisms that are multi-cellular.

Example: Create and compare two models: the major parts and their functions of a single-cell organism and the major parts and their functions of a multi-cellular organism, i.e. amoeba and hydra.

3. Conclude that breakdowns in structure or function of an organism may be caused by disease, damage, heredity or aging.

Example: Compare lung capacity of smokers with that of non-smokers and graph the results.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the role of reproduction and heredity for all living things.

Reproduction is an activity of all living systems to ensure the continuation of every species. Organisms reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Every organism requires a set of instructions for specifying its traits. Heredity is the passage of these instructions from one generation to another. Students need to clarify misconceptions about reproduction, specifically about the role of the sperm and egg, and the sexual reproduction of flowering plants. In learning about heredity, younger middle level students will focus on observable traits and older students will gain understanding that genetic material carries coded information.

Teachers should provide opportunities for students to observe a variety of organisms and their sexual and asexual methods of reproduction by culturing bacteria, yeast cells, paramecium, hydra, mealworms, guppies, or frogs. Discussions with students about traits they possess from their father and mother lead to an understanding of how an organism receives genetic information from both parents and how new combinations result in the students’ unique characteristics.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Conclude that reproduction is essential to the continuation of a species.

Example: Observe and communicate the life cycle of an organism (seed to seed; larva to larva; or adult to adult). Culture more than one generation (life cycle) of an invertebrate organism. Discuss implications of one generation of the species not reproducing.

7 2. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.

Example: Compare the regeneration of a planaria to the reproduction of an earthworm.

Compare the propagation of new plants from cuttings, (which skips a portion of the life cycle) with the process of producing a new plant from fertilization to a seed.

7 3. Infer that the characteristics of an organism result from heredity and interactions with the environment.

Example: Choose an organism. Research its characteristics. Infer if these characteristics result from heredity, environment, or both.

10 4. Understand that hereditary information contained in the genes (part of the chromosomes) of each cell is passed from one generation to the next.

Example: In a cooperative setting, have students trace parent characteristics with that of an offspring. Use coin tossing to predict the probability of traits being passed on. Remember that not all traits are single gene traits.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 3

Benchmark 3: The students will describe the effects of a changing external environment on the regulation/balance of internal conditions and processes of organisms.

All organisms perform similar processes to maintain life. They take in food and gases, eliminate wastes, grow and progress through their life cycle, reproduce, and maintain stable internal conditions while living in a constantly changing environment. An organism’s behavior changes as its environment changes. Students need opportunities to investigate a variety of organisms to realize that all living things have similar fundamental needs. After observing an organism’s way of moving, obtaining food, and responding to danger, students can alter the environment and observe the effects on the organism.

This is an appropriate time to study the human nervous and endocrine systems. Students can compare and contrast how messages are sent through the body and how the body responds. An example is how fright causes changes within the body, preparing it for fighting or fleeing.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Understand the effects of a change in environmental conditions on behavior of an organism by carrying out a full investigation.

Example: Select a variable to alter the environment (e.g., temperature, light, moisture, gravity) and observe the effects on an organism (e.g., pillbug or earthworm). Students could also think of their own behaviors and determine environmental conditions that affect behavior.

7 2. Identify behaviors of an organism that are a response made to an internal or environmental stimulus.

Example: Observe the response of the body when competing in a running event. In order to maintain body temperature, various systems begin cooling through such processes as sweating and cooling the blood at the surface of the skin.

10 3. Explain that all organisms must be able to maintain and regulate stable internal conditions to survive in a constantly changing external environment.

Example: Investigate the effects of various stimuli on plants and how they adapt their growth: phototropism, geotropism, and thermotropism are examples.

Benchmark 4: The students will identify and relate interactions of populations of organisms within an ecosystem.

When studying the interaction of populations of organisms and their surroundings, it is important for students to understand and appropriately use terms such as population, habitat, ecosystem, food web, biotic, and abiotic. It also is critical for students to examine the flow of energy through the ecosystem. All members of a species that live together in a given time and place are known as a population. An ecosystem is all the populations living together in a specific place, along with the non-living things with which they interact.

Populations contain producers, organisms that make their own food; consumers, organisms that eat other organisms; and decomposers, organisms that break down dead organisms. Sunlight provides energy for the ecosystem. Producers convert the sun’s energy into food energy, which then passes from organism to organism. A food web shows the interrelationship of organisms based upon food consumption. The number of organisms in a population is limited by the biotic and abiotic resources available. A classroom terrarium, aquarium or river tank can serve as an excellent model for observing ecosystems and changes and interactions that occur over time between populations of organisms and changes in physical conditions. Constructing their own food webs, given a set of organisms, helps students to see multiple relationships more clearly.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Recognize that an ecosystem is composed both of all populations living together and of the physical factors with which they interact.

Example: Create a classroom terrarium and identify the interactions between the populations and physical conditions needed for survival. Participate in a field study examining the living and non-living parts of a community.

7 2. Classify organisms in a system by the function they serve (producers, consumers, decomposers).

Example: Explore populations at a pond, field, forest floor, and/or rotting log. Have students identify the various food webs and observe that organisms in a system are classified by their function.

7 3. Trace the energy flow from the sun (source) to producers (chemical energy) to other organisms in food webs.

Example: Role play the interactions and energy flow of organisms in a food web by passing a ball of string starting with the sun, progressing to green plants, insects, etc.

7 4. Relate the limiting factors of biotic and abiotic resources with a species’ population growth and decline.

Example: Change variables such as a wheat crop yield, mice, or a predator, and chart the possible outcomes. For example, how would a low population of mice affect the population of the predator over time? Participate in a simulation such as “Oh Deer” from Project Wild.

Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 3

Benchmark 5: The students will observe the diversity of living things and relate their adaptations to their survival or extinction.

Millions of species of microorganisms, animals, and plants are alive today. Animals and plants vary in body plans and internal structures. Over time, genetic variation acted upon by natural selection has brought variations in populations. This is termed microevolution. A structural characteristic or behavior that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment is called an adaptation. When the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics or behaviors are insufficient, the species becomes extinct.

Instruction needs to be designed to uncover and prevent misconceptions about natural selection. Natural selection can maintain or deplete genetic variation but does not add new information to the existing genetic code. Using examples of microevolution, such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered moths of Manchester, helps develop understanding of natural selection. Examining fossil evidence assists the student’s understanding of extinction as a natural process that has affected Earth’s species.

Indicators: The student will:

7 1. Conclude that millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms have similarities in internal structures, developmental characteristics and chemical processes.

Example: Research numerous organisms and create a classification system based on observations of similarities and differences. Compare this system with a dichotomous key used by scientists. Explore various ways animals take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.

2. Understand that microevolution, the adaptation of organisms – by changes in structure, function, or behavior – favors beneficial genetic variations and contributes to biological diversity.

Example: Compare bird characteristics such as beaks, wings and feet with how a bird behaves in its environment. Then students work in cooperative groups to design different parts of an imaginary bird. Relate characteristics and behaviors of that bird with its structures.

7 3. Associate extinction of a species with environmental changes and insufficient adaptive characteristics.

Example: Students use various objects, such as spoons, toothpicks, clothespins, to model bird beaks. Students use “beaks” to “eat” several types of food, such as cereal, marbles, raisins, noodles. When “food” sources change, those organisms which have not adapted die.

  Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 3

 4. Understand that natural selection acts only on the existing genetic code and adds no new genetic information.

Example: Research hemophilia among the Royalty of the 17th – 19th centuries.

5. The effect of selection on genetic variation is a well-substantiated theoretical framework in biology.

Example: Selection (natural and artificial) provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable applied answers, especially in agriculture and medicine.

 

 

 

 

Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 4

STANDARD 4: EARTH and SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to study and develop an understanding of the structure and history of Earth and the solar system.

Benchmark 1: The students will understand that the structure of the Earth’s system is constantly changing due to the Earth’s physical processes.

Earth has four major interacting systems: the lithosphere/geosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. Earth material is constantly being reworked and changed. The rock cycle, the water cycle, and the carbon cycle are powered by physical forces, chemical reactions, heat, energy, and biological processes. The solid Earth is layered with a lithosphere, which is a hot, convecting mantle, and a dense, metallic core. Huge lithospheric plates containing continents and oceans slowly move in response to movement in the mantle. These plate motions also result in earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain-building. Landforms are caused by constructive and destructive Earth forces.

Middle level students learn about the major Earth systems and their relationships through direct and indirect evidence. First-hand observations of weather, rocks, soil, oceans, and gases lead students to make inferences about some of those major systems. Indirect evidence is used when determining the composition and movement in Earth’s mantle and core. Continents float on the denser mantle, like slabs of wax on the surface of water.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Predict patterns from data collected.

Example: Map the movement of weather systems, and predict the local weather conditions.

7 2. Identify properties of the solid Earth, the oceans and fresh water, and the atmosphere.

Example: Create a concept map of Earth materials using links to show connections, such as water causing erosion of solid, wind evaporating water, etc. Compare the densities of salt and fresh water. Classify rocks, minerals, and soil by properties. Compare heating and cooling over land and water.

7 3. Model Earth’s cycles.

Example: Create rock cycle and water cycle dioramas. Illustrate global ocean and wind currents. Flow chart a carbon atom through the carbon cycle.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 4

10 4. Based on the prevailing model, connect the layers of the lithosphere with Earth’s plate movement that results in major geologic events and landform development.

Example: Plot the location of the Earth’s plate boundaries and compare with recent volcano and earthquake activity in the Ring of Fire. Refer to US Geologic Survey data available on the Internet.

10 5. Understand water’s major role in changing the solid surface of the Earth, such as the effect of oceans on climates and water as an erosional force.

Example: Map major climate zones and relate to ocean currents.

Model top soil erosion.

Measure sediment load in a nearby stream.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand that past and present Earth processes are similar.

The constructive and destructive forces we see today are similar to those that occurred in the past. Constructive forces include crystal formation by plate movement, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and deposition of sediments. Destructive forces include weathering, erosion, and glacial action. Earth’s history is written in the layers of the rocks and clues in the rocks can be used to piece together a story and picture. Geologic processes that form rocks and mountains today are similar to processes that formed rocks and mountains over a long period of time in the distant past.

Teachers can provide opportunities for students to observe and research evidence of changes that can be found in the Earth’s crust. Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, sandstone, and shale show deposition of sediments over time. Volcanic flows of ancient volcanoes and Earthquake damage can show us what to expect from modern day catastrophes. Glacial deposits show past ice ages and global warming and cooling. Some fossil beds enable the matching of rocks from different continents, and other fossil beds show how organisms developed over a long period of time. Students will need to apply knowledge of Earth’s past to make decisions relative to Earth’s future.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Examine the dynamics of Earth’s constructive and destructive forces over time.

Example: Discuss the destructive force of volcanoes and resultant rocks. Discuss major river floods and resultant sedimentary rock deposition.

7 2. Compare geologic evidence from different areas.

Example: Locate the same rock layer in 2 local road cuts; give fossil and other evidence that the layer is the same in both exposures. Compare sedimentary deposits from other areas. Are all layers of the geologic column present? If not, which ones are missing? Are the layers of the geologic column always found in the expected sequence?

  Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 4

10 3. Compare the current arrangement of the continents with the arrangement of continents throughout the Earth’s history.

Example: Cut out continents from a world map and slide them together to see how they fit. Plot each continental plate’s latitude and longitude through Earth history.

Benchmark 3: The students will identify and classify planets and other solar system components.

The solar system consists of the sun, which is an average-sized star in the middle of its life cycle, and the nine planets and their moons, asteroids, and comets, which travel in elliptical orbits around the sun. The sun, the central and largest body in the system, radiates energy outward. The Earth is the third of nine planets in the system, and has one moon. Other stars in our galaxy are visible from Earth, as are distant galaxies, but are so distant they appear as pinpoints of light. Scientists have discovered much about the composition and size of stars, and how they move in space.

Space and the solar system are of high interest to middle level students. Teachers can help students take advantage of the many print and on-line resources as well as become amateur sky-watchers.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the planets.

Example: Search reliable Internet sources for current information. Create a graphic organizer to visualize comparisons of planets.

7 2. Develop understanding of spatial relationships via models of the Earth/moon/planets/sun system to scale.

Example: Model the solar system to scale in a long hallway or school yard using rocks for rocky planets and balloons for gaseous planets. Designate a large object as the sun. Model the Earth/moon/sun system to scale with the question: If the Earth were the size of a tennis ball, how big would the moon be? How big would the sun be? How far apart would they be?

3. Research smaller components of the solar system such as asteroids and comets.

Example: Identify and classify characteristics of asteroids and comets.

10 4. Identify the sun as a star and compare its characteristics to those of other stars.

Example: Classify bright stars visible from Earth by color, temperature, apparent brightness, and distance from Earth.

  Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 4

5. Trace scientific influences on the study of astronomy.

Example: Research ancient observations and explanations of the heavens and compare with today’s knowledge.

Benchmark 4: The students will model motions and identify forces that explain Earth phenomena.

There are many motions and forces that affect the Earth. Most objects in the solar system have regular motions, which can be tracked, measured, analyzed, and predicted. Such phenomena as the day, year, seasons, tides, phases of the moon, eclipses of the sun and moon, can be explained by these motions. The force that governs the motions of the solar system, and keeps the planets in orbit around the sun, and the moon around the Earth, is gravity. Phenomena on the Earth’s surface, such as winds, ocean currents, the water cycle, and the growth of plants, receive their energy from the sun.

Misconceptions abound among middle level students about such concepts as the cause of the seasons and the reasons for the phases of the moon. Hands-on activities, role-playing, models, and computer simulations are helpful for understanding the relative motion of the planets and moons. Teachers can help students make connections between force and motion concepts, such as Newton’s Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Gravitational Force, and applications to Earth and space science. Many ideas are misconceptions which could be considered in a series of “what if” questions: What if the sun’s energy did not cause cloud formation and other parts of the water cycle? What if the Earth rotated once a month? What if the Earth’s axis was not tilted?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Demonstrate object/space/time relationships that explain phenomena such as the day, the month, the year, and the seasons.

Example: Use an Earth/moon/sun model to demonstrate a day, a month, a year, and the seasons.

10 2. Model Earth/moon positions that create phases of the moon and eclipses.

Example: Use students to demonstrate the relative positions of the sun, Earth and moon to create eclipses, phases of the moon, and tides, using a circle of students representing the fluid water.

10 3. Apply principles of force and motion to an understanding of the solar system.

Example: Use string and ball model to illustrate gravity and movement, creating an orbit around a hand.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 4

10 4. Understand the effect of the angle of incidence of solar energy striking the Earth’ssurface on the amount of heat energy absorbed at the Earth’s surface.

Example: Place a piece of graph paper on the surface of a globe at the equator. Hold a flashlight 10 cm from the paper parallel to the globe. Mark the lighted area of the paper. Then, place the graph paper at a high latitude. Again hold the flashlight parallel to the paper 10 cm from the paper. Compare the areas lit at the equator and at the high latitude, with the same amount of light energy. Where does each lighted square of paper receive the most energy?

   Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 5

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to demonstrate technological problem solving and understand how science relates to technology.

Benchmark 1: The students will demonstrate abilities of technological design.

Technological design focuses on creating new products for meeting human needs. Students need to develop abilities to identify specific needs and design solutions for those needs. The tasks of technological design include addressing a range of needs, materials, and aspects of science. Suitable experiences could include designing inventions that meet a need in the student’s life.

Building a tower of straws is a good start for collaboration and work in design preparation and construction. Students need to develop criteria for evaluating their inventions/products. These questions could help develop criteria: Who will be the users of the product? How will we know

if the product meets their needs? Are there any risks to the design? What is the cost? How much time will it take to build? Using their own criteria, students can design several ways of solving a problem and evaluate the best approach. Students could keep a log of their designs and evaluations to communicate the process of technological design. The log might address these questions: What is the function of the device? How does the device work? How did students come up with the idea? What were the sequential steps taken in constructing the design? What problems were encountered?

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify situations that can be improved by technological design.

Example: Design a measurement instrument (e.g., weather instruments) for a science question that students are investigating.

Select and research a current technology, then project how it might change in the next 20 years.

7 2. Design, create and evaluate a product that meets a need or solves a problem.

3. Explain the method of technological design.

Example: Keep a log of designing (and building) a technology, then use the log to explain the process.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 5

Benchmark 2: The students will develop understandings of the similarities, differences, and relationships in science and technology.

The primary difference between science and technology is that science investigates to answer questions about the natural world and technology creates a product to meet human needs by applying scientific principles. Middle level students are able to evaluate the impact of technologies, recognizing that most have both benefits and risks to society. Science and technology have advanced through contributions of many different people, in different cultures, at different times in history.

Students may compare and contrast scientific discoveries with advances in technological design. Students may select a device they use, such as a radio, microwave, or television, and compare it to one their grandparents used.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Compare the work of scientists with that of applied scientists and technologists.

Example: A scientist studies air pressure. An technologist designs an airplane wing. Complete a Venn diagram to compare the processes of scientists and technologists.

2. Evaluate limitations and trade-offs of technological solutions.

Example: Select a technology to evaluate. List uses, limitations, possible consequences.

Example: Show the development of compound and complex machines in today’s technological culture, i.e., a simple hand twist drill encompasses wheel, gears, helix, wedge, lever. The power screwdriver/drill adds to the complexity. An electric motor, control switch, torque limitation, and power storage battery further enhances its utility.

Example: Investigate the complexity of current consumer electronics devices, such as a VCR, video camcorder, or digital camera. Identify:

• • mechanical features,
  • optical features,
  • electronic features, and
  • stylistic features.
  • Compare costs and features of competitive products.

3. Identify contributions to science and technology by many people and many cultures.

Example: Using a map of the world, mark the locations for people and events that have contributed to science.

 

 

 

 

Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 6

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to use process skills to examine and develop an understanding of issues concerning personal health, population, the environment, and natural hazards.

Benchmark 1: The students will make decisions based on scientific understanding of personal health.

Regular exercise, rest, and proper nutrition are important to the maintenance and improvement of human health. Injury and illness are risks to maintaining health. Middle level students need opportunities to apply science learning to their understanding of personal health and science-based decision-making related to health risks.

Parents and teachers need to work in partnership to help students understand that they, the middle level students, not some outside force (parents, school, the law), are the ultimate decision makers about their own personal health. The challenge to teachers is to help students apply scientific understanding to health decisions by giving the students opportunities to gather evidence and draw their own conclusions on topics such as smoking, healthy eating, wearing bike helmets, and wearing car seat belts.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Identify individual nutrition, exercise, and rest needs based on science.

Example: Design, implement, and self-evaluate a personal nutrition and exercise program.

7 2. Use a systemic approach to thinking critically about personal health risks and benefits.

Example: Compare and contrast immediate benefits of eating junk food to long term benefits of a lifetime of healthy eating.

Example: Evaluate the risks and benefits of foods, medicines, and personal products. Evaluate and compare the nutritional and toxic properties of various natural and synthetic foods.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the impact of human activity on resources and environment.

When an area becomes overpopulated by a species, the environment will change due to the increased use of resources. Middle level students need opportunities to learn about concepts of carrying capacity. They need to gather evidence and analyze effects of human interactions with the environment.

   Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 6

 Teachers can help their students understand these global issues by starting locally. “What changes in the atmosphere are caused by all the cars we use in our community?” Ground-level ozone indicators provide an opportunity to quantify the effect. “After a heavy rain, where does the water go that runs off your lawn?” “What happens to that water source if your lawn was just fertilized before the rain?” The role of the teacher is to help students to apply scientific understanding, gained through their own investigations, of environmental issues. Teachers should help students base environmental decisions on understanding, not emotion.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Investigate the effects of human activities on the environment.

Example: Count the number of cars that pass the school during a period of time. Investigate the effects of traffic volume on environmental quality (e.g., water and air quality, plant health).

Investigate the effects of repeatedly walking off the sidewalks. Discuss the implications to the environment. Participate in an environmental Internet study.

2. Base decisions on perceptions of benefits and risks.

Example: What temporary changes in the atmosphere are caused by the cars and trees in our community?

Benchmark 3: The students will understand that natural hazards are dynamic examples of Earth processes which cause us to evaluate risks.

California has earthquakes. Florida has hurricanes. Kansas has tornadoes. Natural hazards can also be caused by human interaction with the environment, such as channeling a stream. Middle level students need opportunities to identify the causes and human risks and challenges of natural hazards.

Teachers can help students use data on frequency of occurrence of natural hazard events both to dispel unnatural fears for some students and overcome the common middle level student misconception of invincibility (it won’t happen to me). “What would you need in a tornado survival kit to keep in the basement for your family?” This question would cause students to assess the kinds of damage caused by a tornado (need a flashlight because electrical lines may be down) and the kinds of support services available in the community.

Indicators: The students will:

7 1. Evaluate risks and define appropriate actions associated with natural hazards.

Example: Find news articles that show inadvisable risks taken in a natural hazard situation.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 6

10 2. Recognize patterns of internal and external Earth processes that may result in natural hazards.

Example: Build wood block models of plate boundary interaction: subduction, translation, and spreading.

10 3. Communicate human activities that can cause/contribute to natural hazards.

Example: How can channeling a stream promote flooding downstream? Borrow a County Conservation Commission’s stream trailer to investigate the dynamics of a stream and the effects of human interaction with the stream.   

Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 7

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 5-8 will allow all students to examine and develop an understanding of science as a historical human endeavor.

Benchmark 1: The students will develop scientific thinking.

Science requires different abilities based on the subject studied, type of inquiry, and cultural context. The abilities characteristic of those engaged in scientific investigations include: reasoning, intellectual honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, appropriate skepticism, open-mindedness, and the ability to make logical conclusions based on current evidence.

Teachers can support the development of scientific habits of mind by providing students with on-going instruction using inquiry as a framework. Middle level students can apply science concepts in investigations. They can work individually and on teams while conducting inquiry. They can share their work through varied mediums, and they can self-evaluate their learning. High expectations for accuracy, reliability, and openness to differing opinions should be exercised. The indicators listed below can be embedded within the other standards.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Practice intellectual honesty.

Example: Analyze news articles to evaluate if the articles apply statistics/data to bring clarity, or if the articles use data to mislead.

Analyze data and recognize that an hypothesis not supported by data should not be perceived as a right or wrong answer.

2. Demonstrate skepticism appropriately.

Example: Students will attempt to replicate an investigation to support or refute a conclusion.

3. Learn about falsification.

Example: What would we accept as proof that the theory that all cars are black is wrong? How many times would we have to prove the theory wrong to know that it is wrong? Answers: One car of any color but black and only one time. No matter how much evidence seems to support a theory, it only takes one proof that it is false to show it to be false. It should be recognized that in the real world it might take years to falsify a theory.

4. Base decisions on research.

Example: Review results of individual, group, or peer investigations to assess accuracy of conclusions based upon data collection and analysis and use of evidence to reach a conclusion.

 Eighth Grade – Continued
Standard 7

Benchmark 2: The students will research contributions to science throughout history.

Scientific knowledge is not static. New knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries that may be beneficial or harmful. Contributions to scientific knowledge can be met with resistance causing a need for replication and open sharing of ideas. Scientific contributions have been made over an expanse of time by individuals from varied cultures, ethnic backgrounds, and across gender and economic boundaries.

Students should engage in research realizing that the process may be a small portion of a larger process or of an event that takes place over a broad historical context. Teachers should focus on the contributions of scientists and how the culture of the time influenced their work. Reading biographies, interviews with scientists, and analyzing vignettes are strategies for understanding the role of scientists and the contributions of science throughout history.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Recognize that new knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries.

Example: Discuss recent discoveries that have replaced previously held knowledge, such as safety of freon or saccharine use, knowledge concerning the transmission of AIDS, cloning, Pluto’s status as a planet.

2. Replicate historic experiments to understand principles of science.

Example: Rediscover principles of electromagnetism by replicating Oerstad’s compass needle experiment. (Compass needle deflects perpendicular to current carrying wire.)

3. Relate contributions of men and women to the fields of science.

Example: Research the contributions of men and women of science, create a timeline to demonstrate the ongoing contributions of dedicated scientists from across ethnic, religious and gender lines. 

By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

Overview of Science Standards 9-12

 

Systems, Order & Organization

Evidence, Models & Explanations

Change, Constancy, & Measurement

Form & Function

SCIENCE AS INQUIRY · Abilities to conduct scientific inquiry

X

X

X

X

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY  · Atomic structure · Properties of matter · Chemical reactions

X  X  X

X

X X X

X  X

PHYSICAL SCIENCE- PHYSICS   · Force and motion · Entropy and conservation of energy · Interactions between matter and energy

X  X  X

X  X  X

X  X  X

X  X

LIFE SCIENCE  · Cellular structure and function · Molecular basis of inheritance · Interdependence of living things · Organization of living systems and uses of matter and energy in those systems · Behavior of living things · Structure, function, and diversity of organisms

X X  X  X   X

X   X  X   X X

X X  X X   X

X X    X   X   X

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE  · Energy flow in the Earth · Interactions of Earth’s systems · Origin and evolution of the universe

X  X  X

X  X  X

X  X  X

X  X

TECHNOLOGY · Technological problem solving and understanding how science relates to technology

X

X

X

X

SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES  · Health · Growth of population · Natural resources and the environment · Hazards produced naturally and by humans · Interaction of science, technology and society

X  X  X   X   X

X   X   X

X  X  X   X   X

X   X   X

HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE  · Science as a human pursuit   · Characteristics of scientific knowledge · History of science

X  X  X

X  X  X

X  X

X  X

    By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE

STANDARD 1:  SCIENCE AS INQUIRY

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop the abilities to conduct scientific investigations and understand scientific advancements.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the fundamental abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Develop through experience a rich understanding and curiosity of the world.

Example: Students must have a rich set of experiences to draw on to ask and evaluate research questions.

10 2. Develop an understanding of the concepts that guide scientific experimentation.

Example: The investigator acquires a knowledge base, forms hypotheses, designs experiments, and collects, analyzes, and interprets data.

10 3. Design scientific experiments.

Example: Designing an experiment requires that a student has some background knowledge and that he safely use the proper materials and equipment and uses proper investigative procedures (including controls, variables, and replications). In the interpretation of the data collected and the reporting of results, students should use available technology, proper display of the data, proper use of logic, and proper defense of their interpretations.

10 4. Interpret and communicate about the results of scientific experiments, using mathematics and technology.

Example: Mathematics guides and improves the posing of questions, gathering data, constructing explanations, and communicating results. Calculators and computers are important in mathematical analysis.

Example: Technology is used to gather and manipulate data. New techniques and tools provide new evidence to guide inquiry and new methods to gather data, thereby contributing to the advance of science. The accuracy and precision of the data, and therefore the quality of the exploration, depends on the technology used.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 1

5. Use evidence and logic to formulate scientific models and explanations.

Example: The formulation of a model or explanation should result from the student’s investigation. Discussions, based on evidence obtained, scientific knowledge, and logic may result in the revision of the student’s model or explanation.

6. Formulate alternative models and explanations.

Example: Students should determine which models and explanations are the best based upon evidence, logic, and current scientific understanding.

7. Explain and defend a scientific interpretation.

Example: These abilities include writing and speaking skills, the reviewing of results from other related investigations, clearly explaining the experimental procedures used, constructing a reasoned argument to support the interpretation of experimental data, and giving logical responses to critiques.  

 Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 2A

STANDARD 2A: PHYSICAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of the structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interactions of energy and matter.

Benchmark 1: The student will understand the structure of the atom.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Atoms are the fundamental organizational unit of matter.

10 2. Atoms have smaller components that have measurable mass and charge.

10 3. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons, which determine the mass of the atom.

10 4. The dense nucleus of an atom is in the center of an electron cloud, and this electron cloud determines the size of the atom.

10 5. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but differing in neutron number.

6. Radioactive isotopes spontaneously decompose and are a source of radioactivity.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the states and properties of matter.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Elements are substances that contain only one kind of atom.

10 2. Elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number on the periodic table.

10 3. The periodic table organizes elements according to similar physical and chemical properties by groups (families), periods (series), and categories.

4. There are discrete energy levels for electrons in an atom.

5. Electrons farthest from the nucleus (highest energy electrons) determine the chemistry of the atom.

10 6. Atoms interact with each other to transfer or share electrons to form compounds, through chemical bonding.

The nature of interaction among ionic compounds or between molecular compounds determines their physical properties.

  Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 2A

 8. Physical properties of gases follow kinetic models.

9. Through covalent bonding, carbon atoms can form chains, rings, and molecular structures, some of which are essential to life.

Benchmark 3: The student will gain a basic concept of chemical reactions.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Understand that chemical reactions may often be identified by two or more of the following: physical property change, effervescence, mass change, precipitation, light emission, and heat exchange.

2. Explore chemical reactions that absorb energy from or release energy to the surroundings.

3. Distinguish different types of chemical reactions such as oxidation/reduction, synthesis, decomposition, single and double displacement.

4. Establish the validity of the Law of Conservation of Mass through stoichiometric relationships.

5. Appreciate the significance of chemical reactions in nature and those used everyday in society.

6. Recognize entropy (degree of disorder) as a driving force behind chemical reactions.

7. Assess the interrelationships between the rate of chemical reactions and variables such as temperature, concentration, and reaction type. Why does body temperature remain constant? What about cold-blooded animals?

  Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 2B

STANDARD 2B: PHYSICAL SCIENCE – PHYSICS

Benchmark 1: The students will understand the relationship between motion and forces.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The motion of an object can be described in terms of its displacement, velocity and acceleration.

10 2. Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied.

Example: When no net force acts, the system moves with constant speed in a straight line. When a net force acts, the acceleration of the system is nonzero. For a given force, the magnitude of the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the system. The direction of acceleration is in the direction of the force.

3. All forces are manifestations of one of the four fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces.*

Example: Gravitation is a weak, attractive force that acts upon and between any two masses. The electric force is a strong force that acts upon and between any two objects that possess a net electrical charge and may be either attractive or repulsive. The strong and weak nuclear forces are important in understanding the nucleus.

Recent research has demonstrated that the electrical and weak nuclear forces are variations of a more inclusive force that has been named the electroweak force.

10 4. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force.

Example: Moving electrical charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electrical forces.

Benchmark 2: The students will understand the conservation of mass and energy, and that the overall disorder of the universe is increased during every chemical and physical change.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Matter and energy cannot be destroyed, but they can be interchanged.

*Note: The strong and weak nuclear forces are mentioned for completeness only and no in-depth student understanding of them is expected.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 2B

10 2. Energy comes is different forms. The two main classifications are kinetic and potential.

Example: Kinetic energy is the result of motion while potential energy results from position or is the energy contained by a field. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by electromagnetic radiation, and in other ways.

3. Heat results from the random motion of particles.

Example: The internal energy of substances consists in part of movement of atoms, molecules, and ions. Temperature is a measure of the average magnitude of this movement. Heat is the net movement of internal energy from one material to another.

4. The universe tends to become less organized and more disordered with time.

Example: A logical outcome of this is that the energy of the universe will tend toward a more uniform distribution.

Benchmark 3: The students will understand the basic interactions of matter and energy.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Waves can transfer energy when they interact with matter.

2. Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated.

Electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays.

3. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts.

Example: Atoms and molecules can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to specific amounts of energy. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance and form the basis for several forms of spectroscopy.

10 4. Electrons flow easily in conductors (such as metals) whereas in insulators (such as glass) they hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior.

Example: At low temperatures, some materials become superconductors and offer little resistance to the flow of electrons.

5. There are different forms of energy that change from one form to another.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued
Standard 3

STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of the structure and function of the cell, the molecular basis of inheritance, biological evolution, interdependence and behavior of living things; and organization of living systems and uses of matter.

Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of the cell.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

10 1. Cells are composed of a variety of specialized structures that carry out specific functions.

Example: Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside environment and controls flow of materials into and out of the cell. Specialized bodies, including organelles, serve specific life functions of the cell.

10 2. Most cell functions involve specific chemical reactions.

Example: Food molecules taken into cells provide the chemicals needed to synthesize other molecules. Both breakdown and synthesis in the cell are catalyzed by enzymes.

10 3. Cells function and replicate as a result of information stored in DNA and RNA molecules.

Example: Cell functions are regulated by proteins and gene expression. This regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell division.

10 4. Some plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are the sites of photosynthesis.

Example: The process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems.

5. Cells can differentiate, thereby enabling complex multicellular organisms to form.

Example: In development of most multicellular organisms, a fertilized cell forms an embryo that differentiates into an adult. Differentiation is regulated through expression of different genes and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

 Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of chromosomes, genes, and the molecular basis of heredity.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Mendelian genetics, which focuses on single gene traits, can explain many patterns of inheritance. However, the inheritance patterns of other traits are best explained as polygenic, which is the interaction of several genes.

Example: Alleles, which are different forms of a gene, may be dominant, recessive, co-dominant, etc.

10 2. Experiments have shown that all known living organisms contain DNA or RNAas their genetic material.

Example: Frederick Griffith and Avery’s work with bacteria demonstrated DNA changed properties of cells.

Beadle and Tatum’s work provided a mechanism for gene action and a link to modern molecular genetics.

Hershey and Chase’s work demonstrated that viral DNA contained the genetic code for new virus production in bacterial cells.

10 3. DNA specifies the characteristics of most organisms.

Example: Nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil) make up DNA and RNA molecules.

Sequences of nucleotides that either determine or contribute to a genetic trait are called genes.

DNA is replicated by using a template process that usually results in identical copies.

DNA is packaged in chromosomes during cell replication.

4. Organisms usually have a characteristic numbers of chromosomes; one pair of these may determine the gender of individuals.

Example: Most cells in humans contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair contains the XX for female or XY for male.

Gametes (sex cells) carry the genetic information to the next generation.

Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair.

Gametes unite.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

5. Gametes carry the genetic information to the next generation.

Example: Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair.

Gametes unite to form a new individual in most organisms.

Many possible combinations of genes explain features of heredity such as how traits can be hidden for several generations.

6. Mutations occur in DNA at very low rates.

Example: Some changes make no difference to the organism or to future generations.

Most phenotypic changes are harmful; a few mutations enable organisms to survive changes in their environment.

Some favorable mutations are passed on to offspring.

Only mutations in the germ cells are passed on to offspring and therefore can bring about beneficial or harmful changes in future generations.

7. Biologists recognize that the primary mechanisms of genotypic change are natural selection and random genetic drift.

Example: Natural selection includes the following concepts: 1) heritable variation exists in every species; 2) some heritable traits are more advantageous to reproduction and/or survival than are others; 3) there is a finite supply of resources required for life; not all progeny survive; 4) individuals with advantageous traits generally survive; 5) the advantageous traits increase in the population through time.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand the interdependence of organisms and their interaction with the physical environment.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Matter cycles among the biotic and abiotic components of the environment.

Example: The chemical elements, including all the essential elements of life, circulate in the environment in characteristic paths known as biogeochemical cycles (e.g., nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, etc. cycles).

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

10 2. Ecosystems have energy flowing through them.

Example: Organisms, ecosystems, and the biosphere possess thermodynamic characteristics that exhibit a high state of internal order (low entropy).

Radiant energy that enters the Earth’s surface is balanced by the energy that leaves the Earth’s surface.

Transfer of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem is called the food chain; at each transfer as much as 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.

10 3. Ecosystems have cooperating and competing organisms in them.

Example: The stable community in ecological succession is the climax community. The climax community is self-perpetuating because it is in equilibrium within itself and with the physical habitat.

10 4. Limited space and resources determine the size of populations. This tension impacts how organisms interact.

Example: The presence and success of an organism, or a group of organisms, depends upon a large number of environmental factors. Any factor that approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance is limiting.

10 5. Ecosystems are impacted by the human beings which live within them.

Example: Humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Some examples of ecosystem modification are pollution, harvesting, agriculture, and construction.

Benchmark 4: Students should develop an understanding of matter, energy, and organization in living systems.

Indicators: The students will develop an understanding of:

10 1. Continual energy inputs are necessary to maintain living systems.

Example: All matter moves toward increased disorder.

Example: Organisms decompose upon death.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

10 2. Energy is harvested from the sunlight through photosynthesis.

Example: Plants use light to form covalent chemical bonds in carbon-containing molecules. These molecules can be combined to produce larger molecules, including DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Living things use the energy stored in the bonds of these atoms.

10 3. Energy is contained in chemical bonds which is released in cellular respiration.

Example: Energy released through cellular respiration is used to regenerate ATP, the molecule primarily utilized for energy transfer within the cell.

4. The structure and function of an organism serves to acquire, transform, transport, release, and eliminate the matter and energy used to sustain the organism.

10 5. The availability of matter and energy determines the distribution and abundance of organisms in ecosystems.

6. Matter and energy flow through living things and their physical environment producing different chemical compounds. This results in the storage of some energy and the release of some energy into the environment as heat.

 Benchmark 5: Students will understand the behavior of animals.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Animals have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli.

Example: Responses to external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism’s own species and others, as well as environmental changes. These responses can be innate and/or learned.

Animals often live in unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with uncertainty and change.

2. Most multicellular animals have nervous systems that underlie behavior.

Example: Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.

  Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

Benchmark 6: Students will demonstrate an understanding of structure, function, and diversity of organisms.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of microbiological agents, including viruses, bacteria, and protists.

Example: Viruses vary from bacteria; because of these differences, vaccines are effective but antibiotics are not.

Bacteria vary from eukaryotes; because of these differences, bacteria are important decomposers and unique disease agents and some ancient forms are in a separate kingdom or domain.

Protists are unspecialized eukaryotes whose ancestors gave rise to other major kingdoms; some are disease agents (e.g. malaria, amoebic dysentery) and may require an animal vector.

Understanding of these basic groups underlies effective sanitation and hygiene.

2. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and medical effects of fungi.

Example: Fungi are vital decomposers and important commercial and medical agents.

10 3. The basic biology, diversity, ecology, and human relationships of plants.

Example: Plant structures vary and this variation is important in understanding the function of plants in farming, pharmaceutical products, etc.

Photosynthesis is the basis for nearly all food chains and our food production.

Example: Understanding biology of plants underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

4. The basic biology, diversity, anatomy, ecology and medical effects of major animal groups.

Example: Animals vary; this variation is important in understanding the function of animals in farming, medical research, etc.

Example: Understanding the biology of animals underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.

  Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 3

 5. Humans as complex, soft machines that require many systems to operate properly.

Example: Organ systems have specific structures and functions; they interact with each other.

Infections, developmental problems, trauma and aging result in specific diseases and disorders.

10 6. The structures and processes of development and reproduction.

Example: Reproduction is essential to all ongoing life and is accomplished with wide variation in life cycles and anatomy.

Understanding of basic mechanisms of reproduction and development, as well as changes of aging, is critical to leading a healthy life, parenting, and making societal decisions.

Environmental factors (e.g. radiation, chemicals) can cause both inherited gene mutations and directly alter development; changes to non-reproductive cell lines are not passed to the next generation.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 4

STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of the Earth system’s energy flow, actions and interactions of the Earth’s subsystems, the origin and evolution of the Earth system, and the origin and evolution of the universe.

Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understanding of the sources of energy that power the dynamic Earth system.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. Essentially all energy on Earth traces ultimately to the sun and radioactivity in the Earth’s interior.

10 2. Convection circulation in the mantle is driven by the outward transfer of the Earth’s internal heat.

10 3. Movable continental and oceanic plates make up the Earth’s surface; the hot, convecting mantle is the energy source for plate movement.

10 4. Energy from the sun heats the oceans and the atmosphere, and affects oceanic and atmospheric circulation.

5. Energy flow determines global climate and, in turn, is influenced by geographic features, cloud cover, and the Earth’s rotation.

Benchmark 2: Students should develop an understanding of the actions and the interactions of the Earth’s subsystems: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Indicators: The students will understand:

10 1. The systems at the Earth’s surface are powered principally by the sun and contain an essentially fixed amount of each stable chemical atom or element.

10 2. The processes of the carbon, rock, and water cycles.

10 3. Water, glaciers, winds, waves, and gravity as weathering and erosion agents.

10 4. Earth’s motions and seasons.

5. The composition and structure of Earth’s atmosphere.

10 6. Severe storms and safety precautions.

10 7. Basic weather forecasting, weather maps, fronts, and pressure systems.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 4

Benchmark 3. Students will understand the history of the earth.

1. The geologic table is a listing of the common fossils found in various rock layers.

Example: Research all published data on the fossils present in the layers of the Grand Canyon.

2. The different methods of evaluating fossils, radioactive decay and the formation of rock sequences and how they are used to estimate the time rocks were formed.

Example: Investigate how rocks and fossils are dated. Identify assumptions used in radioactive decay methods of dating. Compare and evaluate data obtained on ages from such places as Mount St. Helens and the meteorite named Allende.

3. Earth changes as recent (observed within human lifetimes), such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and older changes, such as mountain building and plate tectonics.

4. Formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and minerals.

Example: Examine recent sedimentology experiments. Students could design and conduct experiments that show how layers are formed.

Benchmark 4. Students should develop an understanding of the universe. The origin of the universe remains one of the greatest questions in science. Studies of data regarding fossils, geologic tables, cosmological information are encouraged. But standards regarding origins are not mandated.

Indicators: The students will understand:

The structure of the universe.

Example: Galaxies are found in clusters and the clusters of galaxies are grouped together into super clusters.

10 2. General features of solar systems, planets, moons, comets, asteroids, and meteoroids.

3. General methods of and importance of the exploration of space.

 Twelfth Grade – Continued

Standard 5

STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of how science relates to technology and the possibilities of technological design.

Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understanding of how science relates to technology.

Indicators: The students will understand:

1. Creativity, imagination, and a broad knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.

2. Science and technology are pursued for different purposes.

Example: Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world.

Applied science or technology is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems.

3. Different scientific disciplines use different investigative methods to gather evidence to support their conclusions.

4. Science advances new technologies. New technologies open new areas for scientific inquiry.

5. Scientific knowledge is usually presented at scientific meetings or in journals. Sometimes knowledge is not made public for economic or military reasons.

STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of health, population growth, natural resources and the environment, natural and human-induced hazards, and science and technology in human settings.

Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understanding of the overall functioning of human systems and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Hazards and the potential for accidents exist for all human beings.

2. Many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the pathogenic organism, determine the severity of disease symptoms.

Example: A number of diseases are preventable, controllable, or curable. Diseases are either communicable (arising from viruses, bacteria, or other causative agents) or non-communicable (resulting from specific body dysfunctions).

3. Informed personal choices concerning fitness and health involve understanding of chemistry and biology.

4. Personal nutritional balance is determined by eating patterns and food choices.

5. Sexuality is a serious component of being human and it demands strong personal reflection in light of the life-long effects on students.

6. Intelligent use of chemical products relates directly to an understanding of chemistry.

Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of population growth.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

10 1. Rate of change in populations is determined by the combined effects of birth and death, and emigration and immigration.

Example: Populations can increase through exponential growth.

Population growth changes resource use and environmental conditions.

2. A variety of factors influence birth rates and fertility rates.

3. Populations can reach limits to growth.

Examples: Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that can be sustained in a given environment.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand that human populations use natural resources and influence environmental quality.

Indicators: The students will understand that:

1. Natural resources from the lithosphere and ecosystems have been and will continue to be used to sustain human populations.

Example: These processes of ecosystems include maintenance of the atmosphere, generation of soils, control of the hydrologic cycle, and recycling of nutrients.

Humans are altering many of these processes, and the changes may be detrimental to ecosystem function.

2. The Earth’s resources are finite.

Example: Increasing human consumption places stress on most renewable resources and depletes non-renewable resources.

3. Materials from human activities affect both physical and chemical cycles of the Earth.

Example: Natural systems can reuse waste, but that capacity is limited.

4. Humans use many natural systems as resources.

Benchmark 4: Students will understand the effect of natural and human-influenced hazards.

Indicators: Students will understand that:

1. Natural processes of Earth may be hazardous for humans.

Example: Humans live at the interface between two dynamically changing systems, the atmosphere and the Earth’s crust. The vulnerability of societies to disruption by natural processes has increased. Natural hazards include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and severe weather. Examples of slow, progressive changes are stream channel position, sedimentation, continual erosion, wasting of soil and landscapes.

2. There is a need to assess potential risk and danger from natural and human-induced hazards.

Example: Human-initiated changes in the environment bring benefits as well as risks to society.

Various changes have costs and benefits.

Environmental ethics have a role in the decision-making process.

 3. Human activities can increase potential hazards as well as decrease them.

Benchmark 5: Students should develop an understanding of the relationship between science, technology, and society.

Indicators: The students should understand that:

1. Science and technology strongly influence modern society and can also explain what might happen. Human decisions determine how science and technology are applied.

2. Before discussing the economic, political, and ethical perspectives of science and technology-related issues, participants should gain a basic understanding of the underlying scientific knowledge.

3. Social concerns and financing can determine progress in science and technology.

STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND NATURE OF SCIENCE

Experiences in grades 9-12 will allow all students to develop an understanding of science as a human pursuit, the characteristics of scientific knowledge, and the history of science.

Benchmark 1: Students will develop an understanding that science is a human pursuit.

Indicators: The students will:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of science as both vocation and avocation.

2. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods and norms of honesty.

3. Recognize the universality of basic science concepts and the influence of personal and cultural beliefs that imbed science in society.

4. Recognize that society helps create the ways of thinking (mindsets) required for scientific advances, both toward training scientists and the education of a populace to utilize benefits of science (e.g., standards of hygiene, attitudes toward forces of nature, etc.).

Benchmark 2: Students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of scientific knowledge.

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge.

Example: Scientific knowledge is generally empirically based, consistent with reality, predictive, logical, and skeptical.

Scientific knowledge is subject to experimental or observational

confirmation.

Scientific knowledge is built on past understanding and can be refined and augmented.

2. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods, falsification and norms of honesty.

Benchmark 3: Students will understand the history of science.

Indicators: The students will:

10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the history of science.

Example: Modern science has been a successful enterprise of the last two centuries, contributing to dramatic improvements in the human condition.

Science progresses by incremental advances of scientists or teams of scientists.

Example: Some concepts have long-lasting effects and include: Copernican revolution, Newtonian physics, relativity, geological time scale, plate tectonics, atomic theory, nuclear physics, theory of biological evolution, germ theory, industrial revolution, molecular biology, quantum theory, medical and health technology.

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 Appendices

Appendix 1 – Glossary

Appendix 2 – Classical Process Skills

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Appendix 1

Glossary

 Terms Concerning the Concepts of Standards

Benchmark: A focused statement of what students should know and be able to do in a subject at specified grade levels.

Curriculum: A particular way that content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in the Kansas Science Education Standards can be organized and presented in many ways through different curricula. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards do not constitute a state curriculum. However, a specific science curriculum chosen by a school district will be consistent with these standards only if it is consistent with the premises upon which these standards are based (e.g., science for all, equity, developmental appropriateness).

Equity: Within the context of these standards, equity means that these standards apply to all students, regardless of age, gender, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.

Example (Clarifying): An illustration of the meaning or intent of an indicator.

Example (Instructional): An activity or specific concrete instance of an idea of what is called for by an indicator.

Indicator: A specific statement of what students should know or be able to do as a result of a daily lesson or unit of study and how they will demonstrate what they have learned.

Standard: A description of what students are expected to know and be able to do in a particular subject.

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 Terms Concerning the Science Content of the Kansas Science Education Standards

Believe: To have a firm conviction in the reality of something.

Entropy: A measure of the extent of disorder in a system.

Evolution: A scientific theory that accounts for present day similarity and diversity among living organisms and changes in non-living entities over time. With respect to living organisms, evolution has two major perspectives: The long-term perspective (macro-evolution) focuses on the branching of lineages; the short-term perspective (micro-evolution) centers on changes within lineages.

Fact: In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed.

Falsification – a method for determining the validity of an hypothesis, theory or law. To be falsifiable a theory must be testable, by others, in such a way that, if it is false, the tests can show that it is false.

Repeatability is an inadequate criterion and is supplemented with falsification. The reason for falsifiability may not be intuitively obvious. It is fine to make statements like “this theory is backed by a great body of experiments and observations,” but often overlooked is the fact that such claims are meaningless. Experiments and observations do not verify theories, they must be evaluated by human reason to determine the degree of verification they provide.

As a result of the weakness of repeatability as a sole criteria for the validity of scientific explanations, Karl Popper, the famous 20^th Century British Philosopher of Science, and countless others, have insisted that, to be called a “test” of a theory, the test must be designed in such a way that, if the test fails, the theory can be considered false! This criterion is reasonable. How can you call an experiment a “test” of a theory if failure of the test has no meaning? In the United States, falsifiability in science can even be considered “the law of the land,” because of the decision of a Federal Judge (Overton) in a famous trial.

A concomitant criteria, as stated by Popper, Overton, and others, is that the theory itself must be “falsifiable,” i.e., it must be possible to design a test that will fail if the theory itself is false. This is a very difficult position to establish, but that is the nature of good science.

Unfortunately lost in all this discussion is what used to be taught in most science colleges: experimental design. The key here is that “testing” a theory and “falsification” are more associated with the attributes of the test and its interpretation than they are with the theory itself. Another point is that experimental design is critical to theory verification. Critical analysis of the weaknesses (known or potential) of experimental tests of hypotheses, is critical to any ability to make informed decisions based on science education. Therefore, sound science teaching must include the logic of experimental design and evaluation.

Gamete: A germ cell (egg or sperm) carrying half of the organism’s full set of chromosomes, especially a mature germ cell capable of participating in fertilization.

Genetic Drift: Changes in the gene content of a population owing to chance.

Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual, especially as distinguished from its physical appearance.

Hypothesis: A testable statement about the natural world that can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.

Incremental: Within the context of these standards, incremental means that scientists slowly and consistently add to the knowledge base of science by means of scientific work.

Inquiry: Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves many process skills. Conducting hands-on science activities does not guarantee inquiry, nor is reading about science incompatible with inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (K-4): Full inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others. However, not every activity will involve all of these stages nor must any particular sequence of these stages be followed.

Inquiry in School Science (5-8): Full inquiry involves several parts: identification of questions that can be answered through scientific investigations; the design and conduct of a scientific investigation; use of appropriate tools and techniques to gather, analyze, and interpret data; development of descriptions, explanations, predictions and models using evidence; and thinking critically and logically to make relationships between evidence and explanations. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Inquiry in School Science (9-12): Full inquiry includes several components: identification of questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations; the design and conduct of scientific investigations; use of technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communication; formulation and revision of scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence; and recognition and analysis of alternative explanations and models. Partial inquiries focus the development of abilities and understanding of selected parts of full inquiry.

Law: A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances. Laws are frequently, but not always, mathematical formulations.

Material: The elements, constituents, or substances of which something is composed or can be made.

Operational Definition : The assignment of meaning to a concept or variable in which the activities or operations required to measure it are specified. Operational definitions also may specify the scientist’s activities in measuring or manipulating a variable.

Paradigm: A universally recognized theoretical framework in science that, for a time, provides a model for asking questions and seeking answers through science.

Phenotype: The appearance of an individual, including the biochemical traits expressed internally. The genotype may contain genes that are not expressed in the phenotype.

Pollution – the resulting conditions of something being made physically impure or unclean. In the biological world, one organism’s waste is food for another. It’s when an ecological imbalance occurs that you have pollution. Plants, animals and humans can all contribute to the pollution of our world.

Principle: Similar to a scientific law. A principle frequently, but not always, is a qualitative or prose descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances.

Properties: Descriptions of objects based directly on the senses (e.g., hard, soft, smooth) or through extended use of the senses (an atom contains a nucleus).

Qualitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in type or kind.

Quantitative: The concept that entities differ between each other in amount.

Science: The human activity of seeking logical explanations for what we observe in the world around us. These explanations are based on observations, experiments, and logical arguments that adhere to strict empirical standards and a healthy skeptical perspective.

Science Literacy: The scientific knowledge and inquiry skills which enhance a person’s ability to observe objects and events perceptively, reflect on them thoughtfully, and comprehend explanations offered for them.

Technology: A science-based activity in which humans start with initial conditions, then design, build, and implement an intervention that improves the world about us in terms of our original needs (e.g., eye glasses or contacts).

Theory: In science, an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses (e.g., atomic theory, evolutionary theory).

Understand: To possess a meaningful comprehension of a concept or process based on direct or related experiences. Understanding stands in contrast to memorization, where there is only awareness of a term but no grasp of meaning.

  Appendix 2

Classical Process Skills

(taken from the Kansas Curricular Standards in Science, 1995)

The processes of science are skills that are essential to developing knowledge, concepts, and applications across the curriculum. The processes are often referred to as the “hands-on” approach to science and must be used throughout the program. Each of the terms implies active student participation and has been adapted from the following post-Sputnik science curricula: Elementary Science Study; Science – A Process Approach; Science Curriculum Improvement Study.

Observing: Using the senses to gather information about objects and events in the environment. This skill includes using scientific instruments to extend the range of the human senses and the ability to differentiate relevant from non-relevant events.

Classifying: A method for establishing order on collections of objects or events. Students use classification systems to identify objects or events, to show similarities, differences, and interrelationships. It is important to realize that all classification systems are subjective and may change as criteria change. The test for a good classification system is whether others can use it.

Measuring: A procedure for using instrument to determine the length, area, volume, mass, or other physical properties of an unknown quantity. It requires the proper use of instruments and the ability to calculate the measured results.

Using Numbers: This skill includes number sense, computation, estimation, spatial sense, and whole number operations.

Communicating: Transmitting the results of observations and experimental procedures to others through the use of such devices as graphs, charts, tables, written descriptions, telecommunications, oral presentations, etc. Communication is fundamental to science, because it is through the exchange of ideas and results of experiments that knowledge is validated by others.

Questioning: The formulation of original questions based on observations and experiences with an event in such a way that one can experiment to seek the answers.

Relating: In the sciences, information about relationships can be descriptive or experimental. Relationships are based on logical arguments that encompass all data. Hypothetical reasoning, deductive reasoning, coordinate graphing, the managing of variables, and the comparison of effects of one variable upon another contribute to understanding the “big” ideas of science.

Inferring: An inference is a tentative explanation that is based on partial observations. Available data are gathered and a generalization is made based on the observed data. These judgments are never absolute and reflect what appears to be the most probable explanation at the time and are subject to change as new data are accumulated.

Predicting: Using previously observed information to make possible decisions about future events.

Formulating Hypotheses: Stating a probable outcome for some occurrence based on many observations and inferences. The validity of the hypothesis is determined from testing by one or more experiments.

Identifying and Controlling Variables: Determining which elements in a given investigation will vary or change and which ones will remain constant. Ideally, scientists will attempt to identify all the variables before an investigation is conducted. By manipulating one variable at a time they can determine how that variable will affect the outcome.

Collecting and Interpreting Data: The information collected in order to answer questions is referred to as data. Interpreting data includes using information to make inferences and predictions and then to form hypotheses. This includes developing skills in communicating statistical statements about the data in the form of mode, mean, median, range, and average deviation.

Experimenting: This process is the culmination of all the science process skills. Experimentation often begins with observations which lead to questions that need answers. The steps for proceeding may include formulating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, designing the procedure for conducting tests, implementing the test, collecting and interpreting the data and sometimes changing the hypothesis being tested.

Applying: The process of inventing, creating, problem solving, and determining probabilities are applications of using knowledge to discover further information.

Constructing Models: Developing physical or mental representations to explain an idea, object, or event. Models are usually developed in the basis of acceptable hypotheses.